1. Hostile relations
The presence of Rus' in Constantinople was recorded in the oldest Russian chronicle Повесть временных лет (the Primary Chronicle, often translated in english as «Tale of Bygone Years» ), which dates back to the 10th c., as well as in Byzantine sources (Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus'De administrando Imperio). Initially, relations between Kiev and Constantinople were hostile. In 860 the Rus' besieged the Byzantine capital and the first half of the 10th century saw a number of seaborne raids against the city and its surrounding areas, led by princes Oleg and Igor. The Byzantine Empire had to pay an annual tax to the prince of Kiev.
2. Trade (9th-15th c.)
The famous journey of princess Olga from Kiev to Constantinople and her visit to emperor Constantine VIIwas also recorded in the Primary Chronicle. It contains information on the trade treaties between Kiev and Byzantium. To avoid military complications, the Byzantines agreed to grant rights of free trade to Russian merchants from Kiev and Novgorod (as stipulated in treaties dating from 907, 911, 943 and 972). Following these treaties, a great number of merchants of precious furs, wax and slaves (prisoners of war from the territories bordering Kiev and ruled by the Pechenegs) travelled along the river Dnieper in their dug-outs. Back to Kiev the merchants brought silk textiles, weapons, golden works of art and luxury items. According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, there were two fleets of Russian ships: the first started from Kiev in April and arrived at Constantinople in June, the second (from Chernigov and Peryaslavl in NW Russia) started later and arrived in August.1 The neighbourhood where the Rus' merchants lodged was in the area of the monastery of St. Mamas, which was outside the city walls in the corner of the Golden Horn next to the Blahernae palace. The nearest gate was Xyloporta. Through it the Rus' entered the city in groups of 50 unarmed men and traded in furs, wax and slaves. They had the right to stay and receive financial support by the treasury for six months.
During the 11th-12th c. the same state of affairs was probably preserved, since Anthony (a Russian pilgrim who visited the capital in the year 1200) described the commercial streets of the city along with the places of pilgrimage.
Trade relations between the northern peoples and Byzantium were interrupted at the time of the Tatar invasion (second half of the 13th century), after which intermediation in the trade with the Byzantines in the Black Sea region and adjoining lands passed into the hands of Venetians and especially Genoese merchants, who stepped into the important points of communication in the Crimea and the estuaries of the great northern rivers – the Dnieper, Dniester and Volga.
In the 14th-15th c. the Russians again headed for the southern coast of the Black Sea, but the main interest was in the lands of Asia Minor, and Constantinople remained outside the main route for the movement of goods. During this period the Russian lands were united under the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
3. Pilgrimage (9th-15th c.)
As early as the 9th-10th c. there were records of Russian pilgrims to Constantinople. However, it was after the baptism of prince Vladimir in 988 and the adoption of Christianity in Kiev that Russian monks became among the most ardent visitors to the Byzantine capital. One of the most interesting and important historical sources is the preserved description of Constantinople from 1200, written by the Novgorod monk and pilgrim Anthony.2 This description is among the most detailed accounts of the holy places and relics of Constantinople.
Pilgrimages from the Russian lands to Constantinople in the 14th-15th c. (until 1453 – the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks) were very active. Numerous accounts by pilgrims called "хождения" (Hozhdenija – texts of Russian pilgrims about their visits in Constantinople or in the Holy Lands) bear witness to this rise in pilgrimage.3 It seems that the imperial capital was among the most famous sacred places for Orthodox Christians, along the Holy Land in Palestine, and attracted a great number of pilgrims. Some of their accounts are in fact guide books about the places of worship and the relics which were preserved in the various churches of the city. A special place of honour was awarded to the main temple of the city, Saint Sophia. Other texts contain unique information on events which happened in the city during the stay of the respective pilgrim.
4. Literary activity and church relations between Moscow and Constantinople (14th-15th c.)
The great number of accounts dating to the end of the Middle Ages show the active role of Russian men of letters and copyists in Constantinople. They had their own copying centres (scriptoria), such as the monastery of John Prodromos or Stoudios, from where numerous manuscripts and literary works from the 14th-15th c. originated. Monks from Serbia, Russia and Bulgaria lived together in such communities. Another major literary hub was the monastery of Theotokos Peribleptos.4 Known are the names of Athanasios of Serpukhov (or Visotsky, 1387) and Ignatius of Smolensk (he accompanied the Muscovite metropolitan Poemen to Constantinople in 1389).
In 1387 metropolitan Cyprian traveled to Constantinople. His suite included Athanasios of Serpukhov (celebrated locally), who remained in the Byzantine capital until his death.
During the 13th - 14th c. Byzantines and Russians took turns at becoming metropolitans of Kiev. At the end of the 14th c. and during the 15th c. certain Muscovite metropolitans traveled to Constantinople (such as Poemen and Cyprian) to negotiate the formation of an archbishopric in Moscow. The close relations of Russia with the patriarchate of Constantinople continued throughout the Middle Ages.