1. Votive Reliefs

A large number of rock-cut votive reliefs has been discovered in southwest Asia Minor. The gods and goddess mostly derive from the Greek pantheon, though indigenous Anatolian cults are also represented. Inscriptions identify the function of the rock carvings as votive dedications to the gods from mortal worshippers. In most instances the artistic style of the reliefs is Graeco-Roman. Greek language inscriptions, where preserved, are used for all reliefs and cults. Examples have been discovered in situ at Balboura, Oinoanda, and other cities of northern Lycia and Pisidia, as well as in their environs. On the basis of inscriptions and artistic style the reliefs are datable to both Hellenistic and Imperial Roman times. The votive reliefs provide some of the best evidence for religious practices in southwest Asia Minor.

2. Cults and Iconography

The gods depicted on the votive reliefs derive from both the Greek pantheon and local Anatolian practice. Many reliefs are accompanied by inscriptions, naming the honoured deity as well as the dedicator. Their general form and iconography is standardized and easily recognizable. Some, such as the Dioskouroi, are known to have been worshipped widely throughout the Greek and Roman world. Others, such as Kakasbos (the local Heracles), are indigenous to the region, but are assimilated to the Greek pantheon. Inscriptions indicate that the primary function of the reliefs was religious, serving as thank-offerings to the gods. A general theme of protection characterizes the cults represented. The shallow recesses accompanying some reliefs may have held offerings or lamps, and are similar to the 'cup-marks' associated with Hittite stone monuments. The proximity of some reliefs to tombs and burial areas has led to the suggestion of funerary cults.

2.1 Dioskouroi

Reliefs of the Dioskouroi, the heavenly twins (Castor and Pollux), are among the best represented. The largest number of examples displays the twins as armed riders, wearing their pilos caps, with a female figure between them. The female is heavily draped and standing frontally inside an architectural structure, setting her apart from the twins. The structure is probably a temple and the female a 'xoan', or statue of a divinity. Her identity is uncertain and she is not named in inscriptions. She may represent Helen, the sister of the twins, or the 'Pisidian goddess' named on coins. Representations of the Dioskouroi and goddess are known throughout the Graeco-Roman world, most notably at Sparta. Several inscribed reliefs represent the twins in symbolic form, where their pilos caps are carved in high relief.

2.2 Kakasbos

The Anatolian rider-god, Kakasbos, is represented on a large number of rock-cut and slab reliefs from northern Lycia and Pisidia. The name Kakasbos is known from numerous inscriptions. The male figure is always shown on horseback, facing frontally with an upraised club. He wears a short tunic (chiton), a travellers cloak (chlamys), and either boots or sandals on his feet. The club associates Kakasbos with the Greek hero Heracles, and on some examples the horseman figure is named Heracles by inscription. Kakasbos should be related to similar divinities known throughout the Graeco-Roman world, such as the Thracian horseman. Another set of horsemen reliefs from Tyriaion, near Balboura, identifies a club-bearing rider-god on his galloping mount as Maseis. Other indigenous rider-god cults known from this region include Men and Sozon, whose attributes associate them with the moon and sun.

2.3 The Triad

A triad of armed males appear on reliefs from western Pisidia and northern Lycia, especially at Balboura and her surrounding territory. The reliefs show a standard iconography, and very few have preserved inscriptions. Three males stand frontally, each draped in a short tunic (chiton) or possibly a leather cuirass. The males are armed with axes, and may be accompanied by dogs. In some examples the dogs are replaced with snakes, signifying a possible chthonic cult.The males are placed in a rectangular panel capped by a flat pediment, which resembles an architectural structure. A relief found to the north of Elmali identifies the threesome as 'wild gods' (Theoi Agrioi), perhaps a version of three local brother-heroes, Dryos, Trosobios and Arsalos, whose names the Lycians used to invoke for curses.

2.4 Other Cults

Other divinities associated with the Greek pantheon adorn votive reliefs from this region. Artemis is worshipped in a local form as Artemis Lagbene, and her cult centre is thought to be at Lagbe in northern Lycia. Reliefs represent her as 'mistress of animals' (potnia theron) either riding or standing on the back of a quadruped. Heracles, Zeus and Hermes are easily identified by their standard dress and attributes, and are named in inscriptions. Heracles and Hermes each appear alongside the mounted Dioskouroi and an unnamed goddess. Sanctuaries of local gods are also represented, such as that of Men at Pisidian Antioch. The Twelve Gods of Lycia are known from a series of slab reliefs concentrated in central and southern Lycia, and dated to 2nd-4th century AD.

3. Location and Distribution

Votive reliefs are recorded throughout southwest Asia Minor, though many have been discovered in situ in northern Lycia and Pisidia. The reliefs are carved on the sides of limestone rock faces, which are plentiful in this region. Slab reliefs are concentrated around the Lycian coastline, and may have been removed from the highlands in modern times. Sanctuaries are identified where relief clusters of a single cult occur, such as the Dioskouroi at Kizilbel in the territory of Balboura. Where recorded, it has been noted that many reliefs are facing south, perhaps to receive maximum illumination during the daylight hours. A number of reliefs are located in close proximity to natural water sources, near springs, streams and lakes. At Oinoanda a group of reliefs cluster around a so-called 'fountain-shrine'. At a site in Balboura's territory, Dioskouroi reliefs have been discovered in and around the entrance to a cave.

4. Inscriptions and Dating