Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Μ. Ασία

1. Location

Lebedus was 36 km to the NW of Ephesus.¹ The Turkish villages Ürkmez and Doğanbeyli lie near the remains of the ancient city. It was built on the bay of Ephesus, on the western coast of Asia Minor. Traces of the city can be found on the Kisik² Peninsula and on the mainland opposite. The peninsula is low and rocky, about 270m long, and is connected with the mainland through an isthmus 200m wide. On the western mainland there is a hill about 60m high. The position Koimetouria is to the east, within 1 hour from the peninsula. Ancient remains have been traced in both positions.³

2. Place-Names

The etymology of the name is connected with other, possibly pre-Hellenic, place-names, such as Λέβα, Λεβαίη, Λεβάδι, Λεβάδεια, Λέβυνθος.⁴ Apart from the name Lebedus, the settlement is thought to have been called Arti before the Ionian emigration.⁵ In Hellenistic years it was renamed Ptolemais, possibly by the king of Egypt Ptolemy III Euergetes (‘Benefactor’ /246-221 BC) and maintained the name until about the early 2nd century BC.⁶

3. Mythology and Foundation of the City

Pausanias reports that the Carians were the first to inhabit the area, while Pherecydes of Syros reports the Lelegians.⁷ According to Pausanias, the Ionians under Andraimon, one of the sons of the Athenian Codrus, occupied the place and built Lebedus. However, Strabo ⁸ says the city was colonised by some Andropompos, while the Suda Lexicon reports Neleus, the son of Codrus.⁹ Nothing is known about the exact year the city was founded. It is almost certain that it was built together with the rest of the Ionian cities in the period of the so-called ‘First Colonisation’ (11th-9th c. BC).¹⁰

4. Literary Evidence
The city is first reported by Hecataeus of Miletus.¹¹ According to Herodot, Pseudo-Scylax and Strabo, Lebedus was along the road leading from Teos to Colophon.¹² The city’s landmark, according to Pausanias,¹³ was the thermae, thanks to the hot springs at Ecclesia (Lidja/ Ilidja) or Karakotscha (Karakoç), to the north of the peninsula.¹⁴ The long history of the baths is evidenced by Aelius Aristides, who visited the Roman bath of the area, as well as Pionius (4th c. AD), the biographer of St. Polykarpos.¹⁵ In medieval times the name of Lebedus appears in the lists of bishops of the Church of Constantinople.¹⁶ During the Turkish occupation the city must have been completely destroyed, according to foreign travellers from the 17th century.¹⁷ Ruins of the ancient city were traced by both English and French travellers, while the site of the city was identified with the peninsula thanks to the hot springs and the existing remains.¹⁸

5. Historical Background

The early history of Lebedus until the 5th century BC is almost completely unknown. After the city was founded by Greek immigrants to Asia Minor, it joined the Dodecapolis of the Ionian cities and became part of the Koinon of Ionians based in Panionium.¹⁹ In the 7th century BC the city came shortly under the control of the Lydian King Gyges.²⁰ As it happened with the rest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, it was subjugated to the Lydian King Croesus in 555 BC before it came under the Persian domination, when Cyrus defeated the Lydian kingdom in 546-540 BC. The city must have played a minor role in both the Ionian Revolt (499 BC), whose last phase was instigated by the Koinon of Ionians,²¹ and the Persian Wars.²² The city is unlikely to have come under Athenian control immediately after the sea battle of Mycale in 479 BC. However, it soon joined the Delian League and paid an annual tribute of 3 talents, while after 447 BC it paid only 1 talent.²³ During the Peloponnesian War Lebedus allied with Athens, but in 411 BC the city was instigated by Chios to defect. After the Spartans finally prevailed, the city became free until 386 BC, when it came under the Persian jurisdiction again through peace established by the Persians. The city was liberated by Alexander the Great in 334 BC.²⁴

Between 306 and 302 BC the king of Macedonia Antigonus I Monophthalmus (382-301 BC) tried to unite Lebedus and Teos but he did not have the time to carry out his plan.²⁵ In 290 BC, after the king of Thrace Lysimachus devastated the city and took its citizens, as well as the citizens of Colophon, to Ephesus, he founded a new city, Arsinoeia.²⁶ However, the city managed to survive and came shortly under the influence of the king of Syria Antiochus I (281-261 BC). The city was refounded under the name Ptolemais possibly by the king of Egypt Ptolemy III (246-221 BC) during the third Syrian war.²⁷ It is not certain whether the Ptolemies kept the city under their control uninterruptedly until the early 2nd century.²⁸ Then the city was within the sphere of influence of the Seleucid King Antiochus III the Great (223-187 BC) before using its traditional name again circa 188 BC.²⁹ After the Peace of Apamea (188 BC) the city remained independent of the king of Pergamon Eumenes II Soter (197-158 BC).³⁰

In the 2nd century BC the Romans transferred the Technites of Dionysus to Lebedus, thus increasing the population of the city.³¹ In the 1st century AD Horace described it as one of the most desolate cities of his times.³² The orator Aelius Aristides visited the city in the 2nd century.³³

The first references to the bishopric of Lebedos come from the 5th century, which evidences the continuous habitation of the area and the spread of Christianity already from the previous centuries. The settlement was preserved until the late Byzantine years. Hierocles in ‘Synekdemos’ reports Lebedos as one of the cities of the province of Asia.³⁴ The city was seat of the namesake bishop, who was under the metropolitan of Ephesus. Bishops of Lebedus participated in the Ecumenical Councils of Chalcedon (451) and Nicaea (787). The bishopric of Lebedos was reported until the 13th century,³⁵ while there is no evidence of the city from the 14th century on.³⁶

6. Population Statistics

As it happened with all Ionian cities, the city was first inhabited by Ionians, who were expelled from the northern Peloponnese and settled temporarily in Attica, as well as by emigrants from Boeotia and other parts of Greece.³⁷ The composition of the population did not change dramatically over the centuries, thus, the Ionian origin of the citizens was still obvious in the 5th century.³⁸ Ancient Lebedus was not a big city. It is possible that the population of the city did not rise until late antiquity. Roebuck estimated the population of the city at approximately 2,400 people in the early 5th century.³⁹ Although in Hellenistic years attempts were made towards unification of the city and even transfer of the inhabitants of Lebedus, the city managed to survive.⁴⁰ The only settlers were the Technites of Dionysus in the 2nd century BC, who were expelled from Teos, Myonessos and Ephesus successively.⁴¹ In Roman years Lebedus remained one of the smallest Greek cities of Asia Minor.⁴²

7. Economy

In antiquity breadstuffs and dry figs were cultivated in the limited agricultural inland of Lebedus, while in later years there were oaks and olive trees.⁴³ As it happened in other Ionian cities, agricultural production could not meet the needs of the population.⁴⁴ It seemed that the deposits of silver located near the position Koimetouria (Gümüldur) were not exploited. Moreover, there was lots of stone in the area.⁴⁵ The major natural advantages of the place, however, were the hot springs to the north of the peninsula and the two natural bays formed on either side of the peninsula, although they were small.⁴⁶

As regards primary production, Lebedus was famous for the production of figs in antiquity, while on the outskirts Antigonus had his own wheat-producing land.⁴⁷ Just like other Ionian cities of the Asia Minor coast, Lebedus developed the external overseas trade early on and imported breadstuffs and metals.⁴⁸ As regards the available facilities, the organised baths of the city were famous in the ancient world. At the same time the arrival of the Technites of Dionysus signalled the introduction of art games in Lebedus.

The first coins the city minted were made of bronze; this happened in the 4th century BC.⁴⁹ When it was under Ptolemaic control, the city minted bronze coins bearing the head of Ptolemy or Arsinoe and the inscription ΠΤΟ(Λ).⁵⁰ Then (after 188) it minted silver Attic coinage with Athena on the front side (Athena’s head or profile or Athena standing) and the inscription ΛΕ or ΛΕΒΕΔΙΩΝ. The city’s coins were in circulation in the 2nd century in the markets of Cilicia and Syria.⁵¹ In the Roman period the city minted coins again in the years of Tiberius, Vespasian, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius and Geta.⁵²

8. Society – Institutions – System of Government

Public life and activities included the honorarily awarded titles of "euergetes" and "proxenos" (patron or protector) of the city.⁵³ Inscriptions related to the gymnasium carry the terms ‘friend’ – indicating established relations between athletes – and ‘young’ – citizens above 19 years old, who were trained separately.⁵⁴

Known political institutions are the eponymous archon titled prytanis, the "timouchoi",⁵⁵ the boule and the demos with undefined jurisdictions so far.⁵⁶ The theorodokoi are the only known religious office.⁵⁷ Another known office was the elaiothetai, who was responsible for providing the gymnasium of the city with oil.⁵⁸ At the same time, the names of the archons responsible for coinage as well as of the magistrates from Lebedus summoned to settle a frontier dispute between Miletus and Myus are known as well.⁵⁹

9. Religion

Neither sanctuaries nor temples have been found or reported by sources.⁶⁰ It is almost certain that after the arrival of the Technites of Dionysus Lebedus built a sanctuary to the god. Moreover, temples were built in Christian times, but it is not known to whom they were dedicated.⁶¹ As an Ionian city, Lebedus traditionally celebrated Apatouria in honour of goddess Athena, while in Roman times contests in honour of Dionysus were held.⁶²

10. Culture

Diogenes Laërtius reports that either Ephesus or Lebedus was the birthplace of Leophantos son of Gorsias, considered by some to be one of the Seven Wise Men of Ancient Greece. Sextus Empiricus hands down the existence of a grammarian in the city.⁶³ The most developed kind of art in the city was drama thanks to the arrival of the Technites of Dionysus. Apart from that art troupe, there was also a gymnasium in Lebedus.⁶⁴ Some […]atrodorus is known to have won a musical contest.⁶⁵

11. Topography – Buildings

The city of Lebedus comprised two quarters. The first one was the peripherally fortified peninsula (now Kisik). The walls date from the Hellenistic period and today they are preserved at a considerable height (3 or 4 courses). They were made according to the isodomic system, were 2.30m wide and had defensive towers and gates.⁶⁶ The second quarter involved the inland hill. It included the citadel, while the greatest part of the city must have been there.⁶⁷ The only secular public building identified so far is the baths, which must have existed in Roman and early Byzantine years.⁶⁸ It is certain that the city had a gymnasium and a theatre.⁶⁹ As regards religious buildings, no ancient temples have been preserved, although there are remains of a proseucterion atKoimetouria, a Christian church at Ecclesia and a basilica 18m long in the northeastern corner of the peninsula.⁷⁰

1. According to Strabo, 90 stadia from the peninsula of Myonessos and 120 stadia to the northwest of Colophon; Strabo, Geogr. 14.1.29 (C 633). Current position Gümüssu (Gümüldür); see Lang, G., Klassische antike Stätten Anatoliens ΙΙ (Norderstedt 2003), pp. 9-10.

2. Former Xingi.

3. ATL 1, p. 510; PECS (1976), pp. 492-493, see entry ‘Lebedos’ (G.E. Bean); Bean, G.E., The Aegean Turkey (London 1966), pp. 149-150; RE ΧΙΙ, columns 1052-1053, see entry ‘Lebedos’ (L. Bürchner); Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), pp. 229, 231; Schmitz, L., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography II (London 1854), see entry ‘Lebedos’. See Cook, J.M., The Greeks in Ionia and the East (Ancient peoples and places 31, London 1962), table 5; Ager, S.L., ‘Civic identity in the hellenistic world. The case of Lebedos’, GRBS 39 (1998), p. 8, see drawing 68 of Le Bas, M.Ph., Voyage archéologique en Grèce et en Asie Mineure (Paris 1888).

4. RE ΧΙΙ, see entry ‘Lebedos’, columns 1052-1053 (L. Bürchner).

5. Strabo, Geogr. 14.1.3 (C 633).

6. Sartre, M., L’Anatolie hellénistique de l’Egée au Caucase (343-31 av. J.-C.) (Armand Colin 2003), pp. 61 and 95; Cohen, G.M., The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor (Berkeley 1995), p. 189; Mastrocinque, A., La Caria e la Ionia meridionale in epoca ellenistica, 323-188 a.C. (Problemi e ricerche di storia antica 6, Roma 1979), pp. 114 and 140; Bagnall, R.S., The Administration of the Ptolemaic Possessions outside Egypt (Leiden 1976), pp. 169-170; Huss, W., Untersuchungen zur Aussenpolitik Ptolemaios IV (Munich 1976), p. 207; Robert, L., Opera Minora Selecta Ι-IV (Amsterdam 1969-1974), pp. 183-184; Robert, L., ‘Villes de Carie et d’Ionie dans la liste des théarodoques de Delphes’, BCH 70 (1946), p. 519. See Bean, G., The Aegean Turkey (London 1966), p. 150 supporting that the change of name was made by Ptolemy II.

7. Pausanias, 7.3.2; Pherec. FGH, f. 155; Strabo, Geogr. 14.1.3 (C 632).

8. Strabo, Geogr. 14.1.3 (C 633).

9. Suda, see entry 'Ionia'.

10. Sakellariou, M.B., La migration grecque en Ionie (Collection de l’Institut Français d’Athènes 17, Athènes 1958), pp. 349, 357, 358 and table 3; Cook, J.M., The Greeks in Ionia and the East (Ancient peoples and places 31) (London 1962), pp. 23-30; Roebuck, C., Ionian Trade and Colonization (New York 1959), p. 26; Huxley, G.L., The Early Ionians (London 1966), pp. 23-24.

11. Hecataeus, FGH 1a fr. 232.

12. Hdt., 1.143.2; Pseudo-Scylax 98, 17-18; Strabo, Geogr. 14.1.29 (C 643).

13. Paus. 7.5.11.

14. Chandler, R., Travels in Αsia Minor (London 1825), p. 115; Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 228; Philippson, A., Reisen und Forschungen im westlichen Kleinasien ΙΙ: Ionien und das westliche Lydinen (Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes’ Geographischer Anstalt 167, Gotha 1910), p. 49 and PECS (1976), pp. 492-493, see entry ‘Lebedos’ (G.E. Bean).

15. Aelius Aristides, Sacred Tales III, 7; Funk, F.X. – Diekamp, F., Πιόνιος, Βίος Πολυκάρπου (Patres Apostolici 2, Tubingae 1913), p. 436. See Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 229; Chandler, R., Travels in Αsia Minor (London 1825), p. 115.

16. Honigmann, E., Le Synekdèmos d’Hiéroklès et l’opuscule géographique de Georges de Chypre (Bruxelles 1939), 660, no. 10; Parthey, G., Hieroklis Synecdemus et Notitiae Graecae Episcopatum, accedunt Nili Doxopatrii Notitia Patriarchatuum et Locorum Nomine Immutata (Amsterdam 1967), pp. 18, 103, 155, 167, 181 and 245; Darrouzès, J.A.A., Notitiae Episcopatum Ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae (Paris 1981), 1 no. 109, 2 no. 124, 3 no. 133 and 666, 4 no. 118, 7 no. 147, 9 no. 41, 10 no. 38, 13 no. 42; Le Quien, M., Oriens Christianus (Paris 1740, reprinted Graz 1958), pp. 725-726. See Constantini Porphyrogeniti Imperatoris, De Cerimoniis Aulae Byzantinae, 795.4., Reiske J.-J. (edit.), vol.1 (CSHB Bonn 1829).

17. Spon, J., Voyage d’Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grece et du Levant, fait aux années 1675 et 1676 1 (Lyon 1678), p. 373; Le Quien, M., Oriens Christianus (Paris 1740, reprinted Graz 1958), p. 670.

18. Chandler, R., Travels in Αsia Minor (London 1825), pp. 115-117, 126-127; Le Bas, M.Ph., Voyage archéologique en Grèce et en Asie Mineure (Paris 1888), p. 49, table 68; Texier, Ch., Asie Mineure, Description Géographique, Historique et Archéologique des Provinces et des Villes de la Chersonnése d’Asie (Paris 1862), p. 358.

19. Emlyn-Jones, C.J., The Ionians and Hellenism, A study of the cultural achievement of the early Greek inhabitants of Asia Minor (London 1980), pp. 17-18; Roebuck, C., Ionian Trade and Colonization (New York 1959), p. 28.

20. Huxley, G.L., The Early Ionians (London 1966), pp. 52-54.

21. Bean, G.Ε., Aegean Turkey (London 1966), p. 150; Roebuck, C., Ionian Trade and Colonization (New York 1959), p. 28.

22. Neville, J., ‘Was there an Ionian Revolt?’, Classical Quarterly 29 (1979), p. 273; Balcer, J.M., ‘The liberation of Ionia. 478 B.C.’, Historia 46 (1997), pp. 374-377.

23. ATL 1, p. 510; Rubinstein, L., ‘Lebedos’, in Hansen, M.H. – Nielsen, T.H. (edit.), An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis (Oxford 2004) with sources. See also Bean, G.Ε., Aegean Turkey (London 1966), p. 150.

24. CAH² VI, 800-801; Balcer, J.M., ‘Fifth century B.C. Ionia. A frontier redefined’, REA 87 (1985), pp. 40-41; Cook, J.M., ‘The Problem of Classical Ionia’, PCPhS 187 (1961), p. 17; Kinns, P., ‘Ionia: the pattern of coinage during the last century of the Persian empire’, REA 91 (1989), p. 193, ATL 1, p. 510; Bean, G.E., Aegean Turkey (London 1966), p. 150 and Rubinstein, L., Lebedos, in Hansen, M.H. – Nielsen, T.H. (edit.), An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis (Oxford 2004).

25. Syll.³ 344; RC 3-4. See Cohen, G.M., The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor (Berkeley 1995), p. 188; Ager, S.L., ‘Civic identity in the hellenistic world. The case of Lebedos’, GRBS 39 (1998), pp. 8-12; Wehrli, C., Antigone et Demetrios (Études et documents publiés par l’Institut d’Histoire de la Faculté des Lettres de l’Université de Genéve 5, Genéve 1968), p. 77. About the chronology of the inscription, see Magnetto, A., Gli Arbitrati Interstatali Greci, Dal 337 al 196 A.C. II (Relazioni Intestatali nel mondo antico, Fondi e Studî 7, Pisa 1997), pp. 54 and 57, note 2.

26. Pausanias, 1.9.7 and 7.3.5; Ager, S.L., ‘Civic identity in the hellenistic world. The case of Lebedos’, GRBS 39 (1998), pp. 13-15; Cohen, G.M., The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor (Berkeley 1995), p. 188 and Mastrocinque, A., La Caria e la Ionia meridionale in epoca ellenistica, 323-188 a.C. (Problemi e ricerche di storia antica 6, Roma 1979), pp. 48, 53 and 57. It is not certain whether Lycimachus destroyed Lebedus first, see Bean, G.Ε., Aegean Turkey (London 1966), p. 150 and Smith, W. (edit.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, vol. II (London 1873), p. 152, see entry ‘Lebedos’ (L. Schmitz).

27. The third Syrian War (246-241 BC) was between the Hellenistic kings Ptolemy III the Benefactor and Antioch III the Great because they asserted Coele-Syria from the king of Egypt, which resulted in Ptolemy annexing significant territories of Cilicia, Pamphylia and Ionia. Bagnall, R.S., The Administration of the Ptolemaic Possessions outside Egypt (Leiden 1976), pp. 169-170; Huss, W., Untersuchungen zur Aussenpolitik Ptolemaios IV (Munich 1976), p. 207; Robert, L., ‘Villes de Carie et d’Ionie dans la liste des théarodoques de Delphes’, BCH 70 (1946), p. 519. Daux, G., ‘Listes delphiques de théarodoques’, REG 62 (1949), p. 17 believes that a new city was founded beside the former one, according to archaeological findings, while Dieudonné, A., ‘Ptolemais- Lebedus’, JIAN 5 (1902), p. 59 considers that Ptolemy wanted to rebuild the city.

28. Mastrocinque, A., La Caria e la Ionia meridionale in epoca ellenistica, 323-188 a.C. (Problemi e ricerche di storia antica 6, Roma 1979), p. 114; Huss, W., Untersuchungen zur Aussenpolitik Ptolemaios IV (Munich 1976), p. 207; Cohen, G.M., The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor (Berkeley 1995), p. 189.

29. Robert, J. – Robert, L., ‘Bulletin Épigraphique’, REG 63 (1950), p. 166 with bibliography. Amandry, M., ‘Les tétradrachmes à la couronne de feuillage frappes à Lébédos (Ionie)’, in Le Rider, G. – Jenkins, K. – Waggoner, N. – Westermark, U. (edit.), Kraay-Mørkholm Essays: Numismatic Studies in memory of C.M. Kraay and O. Mørkholm (Numismatica Lovaniensia 10, Louvain-La-Neuve 1989), p. 2; Mastrocinque, A., La Caria e la Ionia meridionale in epoca ellenistica, 323-188 a.C. (Problemi e ricerche di storia antica 6, Roma 1979), p. 140 and Cohen, G.M., The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor (Berkeley 1995), p. 189 support that the Ptolemaic control was lost in 197. See Allen, R.A., The Attalid Kingdom, A Constitutional History (Oxford 1983), p. 48. The intention of the city to maintain its former name is proven by the fact that it continued to use the old name together with the new one during this period. This appears in the honorary resolution on two Samians (c. 200), which reports the ‘boule and demos of Lebedus’, see Robert, L., ‘Décret de Lébédos pour un juge de Samos’, Hellenica. Recueil d’épigraphie, de numismatique et d'antiquités grecques 11-12 (Paris 1960), pp. 204-213; Ager, S.L., ‘Civic identity in the hellenistic world. The case of Lebedos’, GRBS 39 (1998), p. 18; Cohen, G.M., The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor (Berkeley 1995), p. 189.

30. Allen, R.A., The Attalid Kingdom, A Constitutional History (Oxford 1983), p. 111; Huss, W., Untersuchungen zur Aussenpolitik Ptolemaios IV (Munich 1976), p. 207; Ager, S.L., ‘Civic identity in the hellenistic world. The case of Lebedos’, GRBS 39 (1998), p. 18; Seyrig, H., ‘Monnaies Hellenistiques’, RevNum (Ser.6) 5 (1963), pp. 20-21. See the opposite view of Bikermann, E., ‘Notes sur Polybe’, REG 50 (1937), p. 237, of Mastrocinque, A., La Caria e la Ionia meridionale in epoca ellenistica, 32 -188 a.C. (Problemi e ricerche di storia antica 6, Roma 1979), p. 174 and of Hansen, E.V., The Attalids of Pergamon² (London 1971), p. 96.

31. Strabo, Geogr., 14.1.29 (C 633). See Bean, G.Ε., Aegean Turkey (London 1966), p. 150 and Hansen, E.V., The Attalids of Pergamon²(London 1971), pp. 171-172.

32. Hor., Epist. 1.11.7.

33. Aelius Aristides, Sacred Tales III, 7; Funk, F.X. – Diekamp, Fr., Πιόνιος, Βίος Πολυκάρπου (Patres Apostolici 2, Tubingae 1913), p. 436. See Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 229 and Chandler, R., Travels in Αsia Minor (London 1825), p. 115.

34. See Honigmann, E., Le Synekdèmos d’Hiéroklès et l’opuscule géographique de Georges de Chypre (Bruxelles 1939), 660, no. 10; Parthey, G., Hieroklis Synecdemus et Notitiae Graecae Episcopatum, accedunt Nili Doxopatrii Notitia Patriarchatuum et Locorum Nomine Immutata (Amsterdam 1967), pp. 18, 103, 155, 167, 181 and 245; Darrouzès, J.A.A., Notitiae Episcopatum Ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae (Paris 1981), 1 no. 109, 2 no. 124, 3 no. 133 and 666, 4 no. 118, 7 no. 147, 9 no. 41, 10 no. 38, 13 no. 42; Le Quien, M., Oriens Christianus (Paris 1740, reprinted Graz 1958), pp. 725-726; See Constantini Porphyrogeniti Imperatoris, De Cerimoniis Aulae Byzantinae, Reiske, J.-J. (edit.) (CSHB, Bonn 1829). About the place name Ecclesia existing in the 19th century in the area, as well as the ruins of churches and architectural remains from the Byzantines years found in the peninsula, see Chandler, R., Travels in Αsia Minor (London 1825), p. 115; Texier, Ch., Asie Mineure, Description Géographique, Historique et Archéologique des Provinces et des Villes de la Chersonnése d’Asie (Paris 1862), p. 359 and Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 229.

35. See Honigmann, E., Le Synekdèmos d’Hiéroklès et l’opuscule géographique de Georges de Chypre (Bruxelles 1939), 660, no. 10; Parthey, G., Hieroklis Synecdemus et Notitiae Graecae Episcopatum, accedunt Nili Doxopatrii Notitia Patriarchatuum et Locorum Nomine Immutata (Amsterdam 1967), pp. 18, 103, 155, 167, 181 and 245; Darrouzès, J.A.A., Notitiae Episcopatum Ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae (Paris 1981), 1 no. 109, 2 no. 124, 3 no. 133 and 666, 4 no. 118, 7 no. 147, 9 no. 41, 10 no. 38, 13 no. 42; Le Quien, M., Oriens Christianus (Paris 1740, reprinted Graz 1958), pp. 725-726. See Constantini Porphyrogeniti Imperatoris, De Cerimoniis Aulae Byzantinae, Reiske, J.-J. (edit.) (CSHB, Bonn 1829) and about exceptions: Darrouzès, J.A.A., Notitiae Episcopatum Ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae (Paris 1981), p. 233, no. 666; Parthey, G., Hieroklis Synecdemus et Notitiae Graecae Episcopatum, accedunt Nili Doxopatrii Notitia Patriarchatuum et Locorum Nomine Immutata (Amsterdam 1967), p. 181.

36. Spon, J., Voyage d’Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grece et du Levant, fait aux années 1675 et 1676 1 (Lyon 1678), p. 373; Le Quien, M., Oriens Christianus (Paris 1740, reprinted Graz 1958), p. 670.

37. Cook, J.M., The Greeks in Ionia and the East (Ancient peoples and places 31, London 1962), p. 24.

38. Sakellariou, M.B., La migration grecque en Ionie (Collection de l’Institut Français d’Athènes 17, Athènes 1958), p. 280.

39. Roebuck, C., Ionian Trade and Colonization (New York 1959), p. 23. Roebuck estimated the population of the Ionian cities based on the numbers provided by Herodotus about the Ionian fleet in the naval battle of Lade. The estimate of Ruschenbusch that the population of Lebedus was 3,200 people in the 5th c. BC has been rejected. See Ager, S.L., ‘Civic identity in the hellenistic world. The case of Lebedos’, GRBS 39 (1998), pp. 8-9.

40. Bean G.E., The Aegean Turkey (London 1966), p. 150 and Ager, S.L., ‘Civic identity in the hellenistic world. The case of Lebedos’, GRBS 39 (1998), pp. 5-21.

41. Bean, G.E., The Aegean Turkey (London 1966), p. 150. See Sakellariou, M.B., La migration grecque en Ionie (Collection de l’Institut Français d’Athènes 17, Athènes 1958), p. 173 and Strabo, Geogr. 14.1.3 (C 643).

42. Ager, S.L., ‘Civic identity in the hellenistic world. The case of Lebedos’, GRBS 39 (1998), p. 20.

43. Hipponax, f. 124 (West). Farina A., Ipponatte (Collana di Studi Greci 41, Napoli 1963), p. 57, 132-133; Hansen, E.V., The Attalids of Pergamon² (London 1971), p. 186; Philippson, A., Reisen und Forschungen im westlichen Kleinasien ΙΙ: Ionien und das westliche Lydinen (Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes’ Geographischer Anstalt 167, Gotha 1910), p. 49.

44. Cook J.M., ‘The Problem of Classical Ionia’, PCPhS 187 (1961), p. 17.

45. Μεγάλη Ελληνική Εγκυκλοπαίδεια, see entry ‘Λέβεδος’; Philippson, A., Reisen und Forschungen im westlichen Kleinasien ΙΙ: Ionien und das westliche Lydinen (Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes’ Geographischer Anstalt 167, Gotha 1910), p. 49.

46. Bean, G.Ε., Aegean Turkey (London 1966), pp. 149-150; Roebuck, C., Ionian Trade and Colonization (New York 1959), p. 12.

47. Hipponax, f. 124 (West); Farina, A., Ipponatte (Collana di Studi Greci 41, Napoli 1963), pp. 57, 132-133; Hansen, E.V., The Attalids of Pergamon² (London 1971), p. 186; Philippson, A., Reisen und Forschungen im westlichen Kleinasien ΙΙ: Ionien und das westliche Lydinen (Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes’ Geographischer Anstalt 167, Gotha 1910), p. 49.

48. Roebuck, C., Ionian Trade and Colonization (New York 1959), p. 21. See also McCabe, D.F., Lebedos Inscriptions, Text and List (Princeton 1989), p. 4 including the accounts of a traveller to Lebedus.

49. Kinns, P., ‘Ionia: the pattern of coinage during the last century of the Persian empire’, REA 91 (1989), p. 192. Although Lebedus is reported as an autonomous Ionian city, it did not mint coins in the Classical years; see Lang, G., Klassische antike Stätten Anatoliens ΙΙ (Norderstedt 2003), p. 9.

50. Babelon, M.E., Inventaire Sommaire de la Collection Waddington (Paris 1898), p. 93; Imhoof-Blumer, F., Kleinasiatische Münzen 1 (Wien 1901), pp. 72-75; Dieudonné, A., ‘Ptolemais- Lebedus’, JIAN 5 (1902), pp. 45-60; Svoronos, J.N., ‘Ptolémaïs-Lebedus, Ephèse, Aenos, et Abdère sous les Ptolémées’, JIAN 5 (1902), pp. 61-70; Head, B.V., A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum: Ionia (London 1911), pp. 154-156; Bagnall, R.S., The Administration of the Ptolemaic Possessions outside Egypt (Leiden 1976), pp. 170, 207-208; Robert, L., ‘Villes de Carie et d’Ionie dans la liste des théarodoques de Delphes’, BCH 70 (1946), p. 517; Robert, L., ‘Documents d’Asie Mineure’, BCH 106 (1982), p. 324 and Cohen, G.M., The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor (Berkeley 1995), p. 189.

51. Amandry, M., ‘Les tétradrachmes à la couronne de feuillage frappes à Lébédos (Ionie)’, in Le Rider, G. – Jenkins, K. – Waggoner, N. – Westermark, U. (edit.), Kraay-Mørkholm Essays: Numismatic Studies in memory of C.M. Kraay and O. Mørkholm (Numismatica Lovaniensia 10, Louvain-La-Neuve 1989), pp. 1-7; Allen, R.A., The Attalid Kingdom, A Constitutional History (Oxford 1983), p. 111; Seyrig, H., ‘Monnaies Hellenistiques’, RevNum (Ser.6) 5 (1963), pp. 19-21.

52. Imhoof-Blumer, F., Kleinasiatische Münzen 1 (Wien 1901), pp. 72-75; Head, B.V., A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum: Ionia (London 1911), pp. 154-156.

53. SIG³ 344, pp. 21-24.

54. Bean, G.E., ‘Inscriptions of Elaea and Lebedus’, Belleten 29 (1965), pp. 596-597, table 6-8; Stroud R.S., ‘An Inscription at Lebedos’, CSCA 3 (1970), pp. 215-218.

55. timouchos: the name of a magistrate in certain Greek cities as Teos, Lebedos, Naucratis and Messene. Liddell H.G., Scott K., A Greek English Lexicon (Oxford 1968) p. 1794

56. About the prytanis, see Michel, Ch., Recueil d’Inscriptions grecques (Bruxelles 1900), p. 484. See McCabe, D.F., Lebedos Inscriptions, Text and List (Princeton 1989), p. 3; Rubinstein, L., Lebedos in Hansen, M.H. – Nielsen, T.H. (edit.), An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis (Oxford 2004); Sakellariou, M.B., La migration grecque en Ionie (Collection de l’Institut Français d’Athènes 17, Athènes 1958), p. 79. About the timouchoi, the boule and the demos, see Robert, L., ‘Décret de Lébédos pour un juge de Samos’, Hellenica. Recueil d’épigraphie, de numismatique et d'antiquités grecques 11-12 (Paris 1960), pp. 205 and 215.

57. Theorodokoi from Lebedus are reported in the visit of theoroi from Argos, see SEG 23, p. 70, inscr. 189.

58. SIG³344, pp. 21-24. Probably the gymnasiarchos, who was responsible for the smooth operation of the city’s gymnasium, was assigned with this task; see Bean, G.E., ‘Inscriptions of Elaea and Lebedus’, Belleten 29 (1965), pp. 596-597, tables 6-8 and Stroud, R.S., ‘An Inscription at Lebedos’, CSCA 3 (1970), pp. 215-218.

59. About those responsible for coinage, see Babelon, M.E., Inventaire Sommaire de la Collection Waddington (Paris 1898), p. 93; Imhoof-Blumer, F., Kleinasiatische Münzen 1 (Wien 1901), pp. 72-75; Dieudonné, A., ‘Ptolemais-Lebedus’, JIAN 5 (1902), pp. 45-60; Svoronos, J.N., ‘Ptolémaïs-Lebedus, Ephèse, Aenos, et Abdère sous les Ptolémées’, JIAN 5 (1902), pp. 61-70; Head, B.V., A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum: Ionia (London 1911); Bagnall, R.S., The Administration of the Ptolemaic Possessions outside Egypt (Leiden 1976), pp. 170, 207-208; Robert, L., ‘Villes de Carie et d’Ionie dans la liste des théarodoques de Delphes’, BCH 70 (1946), p. 517; Robert, L., ‘Documents d’Asie Mineure’, BCH 106 (1982), p. 324; Cohen, G.M., The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor (Berkeley 1995), p. 189. About the dikastai, see Miletos 97 b, 1.1.12.

60. The representation of Athena, Apollo and Dionysus on the city’s coins probably proves that they were the major cults of the city.

61. Fontrier, A., Μουσείον και βιβλιοθήκη της Ευαγγελικής Σχολής III (Smyrna 1880), p. 173; Chandler, R., Travels in Αsia Minor (London 1825), p. 115 and Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 230.

62. Hdt., 1.147.1 and Strabo, Geogr. 14.1.3 (C 633).

63. Diogenes, L. 1.41.5; Sextus Empiricus, 1.274.6 and 1.293.1-2.

64. Bean, G.E., ‘Inscriptions of Elaea and Lebedus’, Belleten 29 (1965), pp. 596-597, tables 6-8; Stroud R.S., ‘An Inscription at Lebedos’, CSCA 3 (1970), pp. 215-218.

65. McCabe, D.F., Lebedos Inscriptions, Text and List (Princeton 1989), p. 4.

66. Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 230.

67. Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), pp. 230-231; Roebuck, C., Ionian Trade and Colonization (New York 1959), p. 12; Daux, G., ‘Listes delphiques de théarodoques’, REG 62 (1949), p. 17. See also drawing no. 68 of Le Bas, M.Ph., Voyage archéologique en Grèce et en Asie Mineure (Paris 1888).

68. Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 229. See Chandler, R., Travels in Αsia Minor (London 1825), p. 115; Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 228; Philippson, A., Reisen und Forschungen im westlichen Kleinasien ΙΙ: Ionien und das westliche Lydinen (Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes’ Geographischer Anstalt 167, Gotha 1910), p. 49 and PECS (1976), pp. 492-493, see entry ‘Lebedos’ (G.E. Bean).

69. Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 230.

70. Fontrier, A., Μουσείον και βιβλιοθήκη της Ευαγγελικής Σχολής III (Smyrna 1880), p. 173; Chandler, R., Travels in Αsia Minor (London 1825), p. 115; Weber, G., ‘Zur Topographie der ionischen Küste’, AM 29 (1904), p. 230.