Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Μ. Ασία

1. The beginnings of the cult

Artemis of Ephesus is the main deity of the city of Ephesus. The famous sanctuary of the goddess, the Artemision, was situated about 1,200 m (7 stadia) far from the original settlement of the Greek colonists. Recent research acknowledges the historical reliability of the information provided by various ancient sources, according to which the original Greek settlers landed on a position where the Lelegians and the Carians (or the Lydians) worshipped the Mother of the Gods. Without harming the worshippers and the sanctuary, the colonists accepted the goddess of the natives, which they identified with Artemis.¹ In particular, the goddess is considered the combination of two different deities and traditions, the Mycenean Artemis and the pre-Hellenic, possibly Hittite, deity of Opis (Upi), patron deity of the city of Apaša, which had existed in the position of the Greek Ephesus.²

Archaeological research has shown that the first buildings in the area of Artemisium date from the Geometric period, although devotional activities may date even earlier, in the proto-Geometric period.³ Furthermore, apart from the proven existence of a settlement of natives on the hill of Ayasuluk, there are Minoan and Mycenean finds in layers under the Geometric peripteral temple of the sanctuary, while among the early dedicative items are also included Hittite heirlooms.⁴ According to literary sources, the sanctuary of Artemis was founded by the Amazons, which proves both the age and the exotic character of the cult of the goddess.⁵

2. The titles of the goddess

The titles of the goddess highlight her power and grandness as well as her relation to the city. She is reported as Despina of Ephesus on a broken inscription from a silver tile of the 6th century BC, which is the most ancient inscription from the sanctuary.⁶ On later inscriptions and literary references the titles ‘Upis Anassa’, ‘the great Artemis of Ephesus’, ‘the greatest goddess Artemis of Ephesus’ and ‘Artemis, the great goddess in Ephesus’ are also used.⁷

3. The archaic sancturay

The sanctuary of Artemis became very famous in the 7th century BC, when numerous figurines, jewels and other items from precious metals or exotic raw materials (amber and ivory) were dedicated there.⁸ It was then that the wooden, ivory and gold figurines under eastern influence, which are believed to represent an original form of the cult statue of the goddess, appeared.⁹ However, the cult of the goddess seems to take its final form in the 6th century BC. The king of Lydia Croesus contributed financially to the building of the dipteral temple of the goddess by offering the lower drums of 127 columns, which were decorated with reliefs of exceptional quality.¹⁰ In the same period, in the mid-6th century BC or later, the creation of a cult statue of the goddess is reported; it is attributed by a later source to the famous Athenian sculptor Endius.¹¹ After the Persians occupied Asia Minor, the sanctuary became very important in western Asia Minor and attracted Persian worshippers, who identified the great goddess of Ephesus with their own goddess Anāhitā or Dahita.¹² The title of the grand priest of the goddess, the megabazus or megabaxus, an eunuch according to eastern standards, was established in the Persian years. The title is a translation of the Iranian ‘god-bearing’ name Bagabuksha.¹³

4. Priests and priestesses

The priest was a person of high prestige: Xenophon had confided his savings to the megabazus of his time –the sanctuary served as a bank–, and the priest returned the money to him when they met during the contests in Olympia. Alexander the Great himself wrote a polite letter to the priest asking to be handed over a fugitive slave who had escaped to Artemisiον, a famous asylum. Megabyzus must have played some role when Mark Antony brashly killed in Ephesus Arsinoe IV, the sister of Cleopatra, who had been a guest at the Temple of Artemis. There have been no more references to the great priest after that period. He may have been replaced by a collective group of priests under the same title (Megabyzoi). A priestess must have undertaken the most important devotional and religious duties ever since.¹⁴

There were a lot of priests and priestesses serving the cult of Artemis of Ephesus. Apart from the megabyzus and later the priestess of Artemis, there was a group of male priests, the “εσσήνες”, that is, the drones, who lived for one year in the sanctuary and abstained from sexual activity. The priestesses of Artemis were virgins, whose piety was supervised, often strictly, by the eunuch priest. Those priestesses were usually called bees. Other groups of women were engaged in adorning the devotional statue of the goddess.¹⁵

5. Festivals

The most important celebration was the birthday of the goddess. According to literary evidence, those mysteries were established in the years of Lycimachus in the late 4th century or in the early 3rd century BC and were celebrated at least until the sanctuary of the goddess was destroyed by the Goths in 262 AD.¹⁶ The open parts of the celebration were performed in the grove of Ortygia, where, according to a local myth, Leto had stopped and given birth to Apollo and Artemis while leaning on an olive tree. Those parts included two meals; the first was offered by the young and the second was closer and included the Couretes, who also participated in unknown secret rites.¹⁷ The Couretes were men from eminent and wealthy families of the city who participated in divine proceedings imitating the mythical armed dancers who scared Hera, while she was chasing Leto, with the clash of their arms and, as a result, gave the latter the chance to give birth to Apollo and Artemis. The Couretes convened from the 1st century AD onward at the Prytaneion of Ephesus.¹⁸

In that period, and particularly in the early Imperial period, the cult of Artemis of Ephesus became widely spread and acquired almost monotheistic characteristics, as proven when the Jews of the city were almost lynched by the mob of the worshippers of the goddess because of Apostle Paul’s sermon.¹⁹ The cult of the goddess was then spread again: Artemisium becomes one of the most important places of worship in the Roman Empire – something that Freud compared with the catholic pilgrimage at the basilica of Lourdes.²⁰

6. Representations of the goddess

In the early 2nd century AD the eminent citizen of Ephesus C. Vibius Salutaris introduced a ritual of carrying about the statue of the goddess as well as several gold statues representing members of the imperial family and heroes of the city. There was intense interest in the cult statue of the goddess, the so-called ‘multi-breasted’ (Diana multimammia), according to the writers of the time, which appears in numerous representations on coins, medals and replicas in natural size from Roman times.²¹ It probably dates from the 4th century BC. There have been a lot of interpretations concerning the breasts of the goddess. The lack of nipples has led to a series of identifications (eggs, grapes and acorns), though none of them has been conclusive. The most recent theory was formulated by Seiterle, who identified the ‘breasts’ with testicles of sacrificed bulls, which was generally accepted positively. However, the main disadvantage of this theory is that there was no evidence of bull sacrifice. On the other hand, Bammer, based on finds including amber dedicative items, supported the earlier idea of breasts, while Morris connected the shape with leather pouches reminiscent of Hittite devotional items.²²

However, despite controversies about the ‘breasts’, the statues of Artemis of Ephesus represent the goddess wearing a dress elaborately decorated with representations of bulls, griffons, sphinxes, sirens, deer, lions and bees – a clear and undoubted reference to Potnia Theron (‘Mistress of the Animals’)–, a polo coat, belt and shoes, on which the famous Ephesian letters were inscribed, that is, the six magic spells that were widely spread in the Hellenistic and Roman world .²³

7. The character of the cult

The cult of Artemis includes pre-Hellenic elements, which are mainly related to her position as the Great Goddess with therapeutic properties. This character of the goddess was maintained until the historical years, while from the 3rd century on it was enriched with mystical aspects. Finally, there must have been a direct connection of the goddess with fertility, as evidenced by the appearance of the cult statue with the numerous ‘breasts’, whatever the explanation. The relation of the goddess with fertility was responsible for her identification with Isis in Roman times.²⁴ Woollen threads hung from the statue, which refers to both the feminine nature and pre-Hellenic opinions on fertility.²⁵

The cult was related mainly to the young, as the presence of married women in the sanctuary was prohibited, while the young of the city played some role in organising symposia, as mentioned above.²⁶ The epiphany of the goddess, which possibly happened during the sacrifice through an opening on the pediment of the temple, which also appears on coins, must have played a dominant role.²⁷

8. The end of the cult

The cult suffered a heavy blow when the temple was destroyed by an earthquake and sacked by the Goths in 262 AD. It seems that it survived until 395, when Theodosius banned the religion of the heathens. On an inscription dating from about 450 bishop Dimeas proudly states that he removed the icon of the goddess hanging on the propylaea of the city and replaced it with the cross.²⁸

1. Paus. 7.2.8-9· Strabo 14.1.21. See Sakellariou, M.B., La migration grecque en Ionie (Athens 1958), p. 344 ff.

2. See Burkert, W., “Die Artemis der Epheser: Wirkungsmacht und Gestalt einer grossen Göttin”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), Ephesos. Der neue Führer. 100 Jahre österreichische Ausgrabungen. 1895-1995 (Wien 1999), p. 59, 61 and Morris, S.P., “The Prehistoric Background of Artemis Ephesia: A Solution to the Enigma of her 'Breasts'?”, in Muss, U. (ed.), Der Kosmos der Artemis von Ephesos (Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut, Sonderschriften 37, Wien 2001), p. 134-138. Ούπις: Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis, Καλλίμαχος, ΙΙΙ.239. This name is related to «Ώπις», the virgin from the Hyperborean lands who was buried in Delos. Herodotus 4.35. Hesychius, see word «Ώπις». See also Macrobius, Saturnalia 5.22.5 and Servius, Ad Aen., XI.532. See Fauth, W., “Kleinasiatisch ΟΥΠΙΣ und ΜΑΛΙΣ”, Beiträge zur Namenforschung 4 (1969), p. 148-171. Apaša is found in the archives of the Hittites kings as a capital of Asia Minor’s kingdom , which was in a war with the Hittites and had entered into an alliance with the Achaeans during the end of the 14^th century BC. See Heinhold-Krämer, S., Arzawa: Untersuchungen zu seiner Geschichte nach den hethitischen Quellen (Texte der Hethiter 8, Heidelberg 1977), p. 93.

3. Peripteral temple dated in the geometric period: Bammer, A., “A peripteros of the geometric period in the Artemision of Ephesus”, AnatSt 40 (1990), p. 137-160 and “Les sanctuaires des VIIIe et VIIe siècles à l’Artémision d’Ephèse”, RA (1991), p. 63-83 and “Der ephesische Peripteros und die griechische Architektur”, in Bietak, M. (ed.), Archaische und griechische Tempel und Altägypten (Wien 2001), p. 71-82. Finds dated to the protogeometric period: Kerschner, M., “Zum Kult im früheisenzeitlichen Ephesos. Interpretation eines protogeometrischen Fundkomplexes aus dem Artemisheiligtum”, in Schmalz, Β. – Söldner, Μ. (ed.), Griechische Keramik im kulturellen Kontext. Akten des Internationalen Vasen-Symposions in Kiel vom 24 bis 28.9 2001 veranstaltet durch das Archäologische Institut der Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel (München 2003), p. 246-250.

4. Settlement dated to the Bronze Age: Büyükkolanci, M., “Excavations on Ayasuluk Hill in Selçuk / Turkey. A Contribution to the Early History of Ephesus”, in Krinzinger, F. (ed.), Akten des Symposions “Die Ägäis und das Westliche Mittelmeer. Beziehungen und Wechselwirkungen 8. bis 5. Jh. v. Chr.”, Wien 24. bis 27. März 1999 (DenkschrWien 288, Archäologische Forschungen 4, Wien 2000), p. 39-44. Early finds dated to the Minoan and Mycenaean time were discovered under the peripteral temple of the geometric period. Bammer, A., “Ephesos in der Bronzezeit”, ÖJh 57 (1986/1987), Beiblatt, p. 1 ff, “Geschichte-neu geschrieben: Mykene im Artemision von Ephesos”, ÖJh 63 (1994), Beiblatt, p. 29-40 and “Mykene und der ephesiche Peripteros”, in Santi, M.F. (ed.), Studi di Archeologia in onore di Gustavo Traversari, 1 (Archaeologica 141, Roma 2004), p. 29-45. Regarding the Hittite heirlooms see Hanfmann, G.M.A., “A ‘Hittite’ Priest at Ephesus”, AJA 66 (1962), p. 1-4 and Muss, U., “Von Mythos zur Archäologie eines Heiligtums: Ein bronzezeitlicher Kopfaus dem Artemision”, in Muss, U. (ed.), Der Kosmos der Artemis von Ephesos (Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut, Sonderschriften 37, Wien 2001), p. 153-167.

5. Pausanias 4.31.8, 7.2.4· Strabo 14.1.21. The quotations of the Amazons have been interpreted as distorted memories of the Hittite presence in the area: Picard, C., Ephèse et Claros. Rescherches sur les sanctuaires et les cultes se l’Ionie du Nord (Paris 1922), p. 431-450, 554-572· Huxley, G., “Homer’s Amazons”, PdP 15 (1960), p. 121-124. The creation of the four Amazons is related to this myth. For the famous sculpture’s competition of the 5^th century BC see Bol, P., Amazones Volneratae (Mainz 1998).

6. Hogarth, D.G., Ionia and the East: six lectures delivered before the University of London (Oxford 1908), p. 120-144· Wankel, H., Die Inschriften von Ephesos, 1a. Nr. 1-47 (Texte) (IK 11.1, Bonn 1979), p. 1-5.

7. See Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis, ΙΙΙ.239· Acts of Apostels 19.34· Wankel, H., Die Inschriften von Ephesos, 1a. Nr. 1-47 (Texte) (IK 11.1, Bonn 1979), no. 27 and Börker, C. – Merkelbach, R., Die Inschriften von Ephesos, 2. Nr. 101-599 (Repertorium) (IK 12, Bonn 1979), no. 142, 224, 324.

8. For the sculpture see Muss, U., Die Bauplastik des archaischen Artemisions von Ephesos (Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut, Sonderschriften 25, Wien 1994).

9. For the statuettes see Işik, F., “Elfenbeinfiguren aus den Artemision von Ephesos”, in Muss, U. (ed.), Der Kosmos der Artemis von Ephesos (Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut, Sonderschriften 37, Wien 2001), p. 85-100. For the jewels see Laffineur, R., L’orfevrèrie orientalisante rhodienne (Paris 1975). For the coins see in general Kraay, C.M., Archaic and Classical Greek Coins (London 1976), p. 317-324.

10. For the connections of the statuettes with the cult statue see Muss, U., “Zur Dialektik von Kultstatue und Statuetten iù Artemision von Ephesos”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F., (ed.), Ephesos. Der neue Führer. 100 Jahre österreichische Ausgrabungen. 1895-1995 (Wien 1999), p. 597-604.

11. Pliny, HN, 16.79· Morris, S.P., “The Prehistoric Background of Artemis Ephesia: A Solution to the Enigma of her ‘Breasts’?”, in Muss, U. (ed.), Der Kosmos der Artemis von Ephesos (Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut, Sonderschriften 37, Wien 2001), p. 149-150.

12. See Heberdey, R., “Δαΐτις. Ein Beitrag zum ephesischen Artemiskult”, ÖJh 7 (1904), p. 210 ff. At the end of the 411 BC the satrap of Lydia Tissaphernes sacrificed to Artemis: Thucydides 8.109.1.

13. See Deinon, FGrHist 690 F1, who translated it to bagabyzo. Regarding the title and the Iranian translation see Kroll, H., “Megabyzos”, RE XV 1 (1931), columns 121-122· Benveniste, E., Titres et noms propres en Iranien ancien (Paris 1966), p. 108-115. Eunuch: Strabo 14.1.23.

14. Xen: An., 3.4.5· Plut., Vit. Alex. 42· Antonius. Appian , B. Civ. 5.9. For further information about the Megabyzos see Picard, C., Ephèse et Claros. Rescherches sur les sanctuaires et les cultes se l’Ionie du Nord (Paris 1922), p. 166-180.

15. kosmophoroi: those who carry ornaments in procession, cosmiteirai, chrysophoroi : priestly title. For more details about the Goddess’ priests see Picard, C., Ephèse et Claros. Rescherches sur les sanctuaires et les cultes se l’Ionie du Nord (Paris 1922), p. 1 ff. For the “εσσήνες” see also Οικονόμου, Γ., «Ναοποιοί και εσσήνες», AρχΔελτ 7 (1921-1922), p. 258-346· Keil, J., “Zur ephesischen essenia”, ÖJh 36 (1946) Beibl., columns 13-14.

16. The mysteries were reorganized during the reign of Commodus, in the middle of the 3^rd century BC by one of Artemis’ priestesses according to an inscription from Ephesus.: Wankel, H., Die Inschriften von Ephesos, 1a. Nr. 1-47 (Texte) (IK 11.1, Bonn 1979), no. 26.

17. Strabo, 14.1.20. The same myth is reported by Tacitus, Annales 3.61. Leto is also represented on an Ephesian coin dated to the 2^nd century BC. For the Ortygia see Keil, J., “Ortygia, die Geburtssätte der ephesishen Artemis”, ÖJh 21-22 (1922-1924), p. 113-119. In the beginning of the 2^nd century AD the birth of Artemis was celebrated on the 6^th of Thargelion month, which was the 9^th month in the Ephesian year (started on the 24^th of May): Merkelbach, R., “Die ephesischen Monate in der Kaiserzeit”, ZPE 36 (1979), p. 157 ff. and Rogers, G.M.L., The Sacred Identity of Ephesos. Foundation Myths of a Roman City (London – New York 1991), p. 43.

18. For the Couretes see Knibbe, D., Forschungen in Ephesos IX.1.1: Der Staatsmarkt, Die Inschriften des Prytaneions (Bad Vöslau-Baden 1981), p. 76-92 and Rogers, G.M., “The Mysteries of Artemis at Ephesos”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F., (ed.), Ephesos. Der neue Führer. 100 Jahre österreichische Ausgrabungen. 1895-1995 (Wien 1999), p. 241-250.

19. Acts of the Apostels 19.23-41· Rogers, G.M., “Demetrios of Ephesos. Silversmith and neopoios?”, Belleten 50 (1987), p. 877-883.

20. Freud, S., “Gross ist die Diana der Epheser”, Gesammelte Werke VIII, 1909-1913 (London 1943), p. 360-361.

21. See especially Thiersch, Η., Artemis Ephesia. Eine archäologische Untersuchung (Berlin 1935)· Fleischer, R., Artemis von Ephesos und Verwandte Kultstatuen aus Anatolien und Syrien (Leiden 1973) and “Artemis Ephesia”, LIMC II, p. 755-763, plate 564-573.

22. Regarding the earlier views, which dispute the identification with breasts see Fleischer, R., Artemis von Ephesos und Verwandte Kultstatuen aus Anatolien und Syrien (Leiden 1973), p. 74 ff. Seiterle, G., “Artemis – Die Grosse Göttin von Ephesos”, AW 10.3 (1979), p. 3-16· Bammer, A., “A peripteros of the geometric period in the Artemision of Ephesus”, AnatSt 40 (1990), p. 153-160, fig. 24-27, plat. XXI, b, c, XXI a· Morris, S.P., “The Prehistoric Background of Artemis Ephesia: A Solution to the Enigma of her ‘Breasts’?”, in Muss, U. (ed.), Der Kosmos der Artemis von Ephesos (Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut, Sonderschriften 37, Wien 2001), p. 134-151.

23. ΑΣΚΙΟΝ, ΚΑΤΑΣΚΙΟΝ, ΛΥΞ, ΤΕΤΡΑΞ, ΔΑΜΝΑΜΕΝΕΥΣ, ΑΙΣΙΑ. On the Ephesia Grammata see Wessely, C., Ephesia Grammata (Wien 1886)· McCown, C.C., “The Ephesia Grammata in Popular Belief”, TAPA 4 (1923), p. 128-140· Preisendanz, Κ., “Εφέσια Γράμματα”, Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum 6 (Stuttgart 1962), columns 515-520, where the written sources are cited. Their recording on the statue of Artemis Ephesia is reported by Pausanias the Grammatician frag. 185 cited by Eustathius, Commentaries on Homer’s Odyssey, 19.247.

24. LiDonnici, L., “The Images of Artemis Ephesia and Greco-Roman Worship: A Reconsideration”, Harvard Theological Review 85 (1992), p. 289-415.

25. Seiterle, G., “Ephesischen Wollbinden. Attribut der Göttin –Zeichen der Stieropfers”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F., (ed.), Ephesos. Der neue Führer. 100 Jahre österreichische Ausgrabungen. 1895-1995 (Wien 1999), p. 251-254.

26. Prohibition: Artemidorus, Onirocrtitica 4.4.

27. Regarding the archaeological evidence see Bammer, A., Die Architektur des jungeren Artemision von Ephesos (Wiesbaden 1972). On the coins see Trell, B.L., The Temple of Artemis at Ephesos (American Numismatic Society, Numismatic Notes and Monographs 107, New York 1945) and especially Cook, B.F., “The Tympanum of the Fourth Century Temple of Artemis at Ephesus”, British Museum Quarterly 37 (1973), p. 137-140. On the Goddess’ epiphany see Bıngöl, O., “Epiphanie an den Artemistempeln von Ephesos und Magnesia am Mäander”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), Ephesos. Der neue Führer. 100 Jahre österreichische Ausgrabungen. 1895-1995 (Wien 1999), p. 233-240.

28. Engelmann, H. – Knibbe, D. – Merkelbach, R., Die Inschriften von Ephesos, 4. Nr. 1001-1445 (Repertorium) (IK 14, Bonn 1980), no. 1351.