1. Introduction
With the exception of early migrations, about which only limited information is usually provided, the migration to the western coast of Asia Minor was fully integrated into the normality of people’s life, or at least of some population groups. There were various motives, most important being the commercial transactions connecting the islanders with the opposite coast, the seasonal need for workers in agriculture and processing, as well as the need for specialised craftsmen. The above frequently served as economic solutions for large population groups, either as the main or as a secondary source of income. The proximity to the coast of Asia Minor made access easier. The close ties between the two coasts are evident in the islands’ anthropogeography: the most important settlements of the islands were built on their eastern coasts, facing the western coast of Asia Minor. Finally, easy access may have contributed to the increased seasonal movements.
2. Lesvos
Towards the late 16th century, the first settlers of Ayvalık, who according to tradition came from Lesvos and nearby islands, landed on the Asia Minor coast.1 According to other evidence, workers from the island participated in the extensive restorations of the castle of Phokaia in the early 17th century, while builders were sent to Constantinople (Istanbul) and cities of Anatolia to work on construction projects funded by the central administration.2 Migration increased dramatically in the late 19th century mainly due to the economic relations of Lesvos with the Asia Minor coast.3 Migration from Lesvos to the Asia Minor coast, which continued until the early 20th century, took mostly the form of seasonal movement of workers and craftsmen during spring and summer. The cases of permanent settlement of immigrants were rarer. Apart from the opposite coast and their inland, immigrants from Lesvos also appeared in the area of Smyrna and Constantinople.
Migration resulted in a considerable reduction in the male population. Some women followed the men of the island to the Asia Minor coast, although their movements were limited. They worked as servants and saved their earnings as a dowry, which would allow them to get married.4 The frequent absence of the men from the island was also reflected in the system of transferring the family property, which was handed down to the daughters through dowry. The matrilocal settlement of the couple was the rule after the wedding. The consequences of migration can be traced even in the frequency of divorce: the more they moved (workers, craftsmen, retailers), the more frequently they divorced.5
3. Chios
After the gradual decline of Chios as the centre of commercial transactions with the Levante in the 17th century, in combination with the simultaneous development of Smyrna, the Chian traders chose to migrate to the new centre in order to evade their isolation from international trade.6 They were active mainly in the wholesale and retail trade of European fabrics. Taking advantage of the opportunities, they excelled already from the mid-18th century at trading cloth and other colonial products. Thus, they expanded their commercial network to various cities of the Ottoman Empire and Europe and established family businesses. The key position they held in the trade of Smyrna is also proven by the destructive impact on the economy of the city caused by the temporary removal of several of them after the onset of the Greek War on Independence. Immigrants from Chios were also involved in shipping as well as in finance, activities that offered considerable profit from the 1760s onwards.
Despite its great importance, migration from Chios to Smyrna never became massive. It involved the merchants, who had the necessary funds. After their settlement in Smyrna, they continued being in touch with their birthplace. They habitually funded the embellishment of their family houses as well as projects of social welfare on the island. Some examples are the Baltatzis, Petrokokkinos, Mavrogordatos, Mavrokordatos, Psycharis and Rallis families.
Finally, Chian seasonal workers were used at the sowing and reaping of the harvest by Ottoman local rulers of the region of Alaçata. The latter, in an attempt to secure a permanent workforce for their landed property in the 17th century, started to grant the Chian farmers land instead of pay them with a part of the production; as a result, seasonal movement evolved into permanent settlement for some of the immigrants.
4. Samos
The main bulk of the available information about migration from Samos to the coast of Asia Minor comes from the period of the Principality of Samos (1834-1912). The immigrants, mainly men, settled along almost the entire coast and the hinterland, particularly in the vilayet of Aydın. There are no accurate estimates for their number, which must have been considerably high. The large number of metronymics in Samos between the recorded surnames confirms the frequent migration of men.
According to their activities and duration of stay in Asia Minor, the immigrants from Samos fall into the following groups: a) relatively permanently settled businessmen, traders, land-owners and workers, b) peasants who leased the land; they usually stayed less than a year and sometimes brought their family with them, particularly during the harvest,7 c) seasonal workers who arrived in the area during the harvest. They were often landless due to their inability to pay off loans they had received in order to fulfill their tax obligations.8 It is estimated that approximately 1500 families were living in this way. There were 1636 seasonal workers in 1896.9 They formed groups and usually remained for about three months. The ‘parees’, as the groups of workers called themselves, included 10-20 members. The ‘kapetanios’, the leader of each group, would visit the area towards late May and agree with the owner or the lessee of the land about the conditions of work. The departure of the ‘piritianoi’, as the seasonal workers were called, took the form of a social ritual celebrated with the participation of the entire village. They were usually paid in both cash and kind. Pay in kind (‘theristika’) was sent to Samos in August or September.
Supervisors of the Principality were settled in western Asia Minor, aiming to serve the needs of the Samian commercial navy and of Samian peasants. The supervision authorities (‘epistasies’) in Smyrna, New Ephesus (Kuşadası) and Sokya held supervisory branches in other places as well.
5. The Dodecanese
Already from the 16th century, after the Dodecanese came under Ottoman rule, their inhabitants migrated often to Asia Minor, where they either were active in trade, which usually meant their permanent settlement, or worked seasonally as craftsmen and land workers. The Dodecanesian communities were quite frequent. There were immigrants from Symi on the opposite coast, in the settlements of Stadia and Karamaka. Immigrants from the village of Sianna of Rhodes were settled in Bayındır, Aydın and Pentziki (Bencik). Inhabitants of Kastelorizo formed communities in the settlements of Kalamaki, Antifellos, Tristomo, Myra of Lycia and Foinikas, and their members shipped timber to Aegean islands and harbours of the eastern Mediterranean in the early 20th century.
According to oral tradition, the inhabitants of Tilos headed for the settlements of Kirkintzes, Kuşadası, Theira (Tire), Nazilli (where there was a quarter called ‘Ellinas’), Denizli , Stadia and Alikarnassos (Bodrum). According to written evidence from the late 19th century, this was a mainly seasonal movement of carpenters, blacksmiths and builders. In Asia Minor they would stay for the period between the celebrations of St. George (April 23rd) and St. Demetrios (October 28th). Of particular interest are the establishment of the Charitable Society of Nazilli in 1893, which aimed at the economic support of immigrants from Tilos until they found a job as well as at granting low-interest loans to churches, communities and the monastery of their birthplace. Both the establishment of the society and some entries in its books reveal that at least some of the immigrants stayed for longer periods in Nazilli and did not strictly follow the annual cycle of migration. The society survived until 1922.