1. Location

Metropolis was an Ionic city in a strategic position between Ephesus and Smyrna. In particular, Strabo says that it was 120 stadia far from Ephesus.¹ Already from the end of the 17th century the travellers Spon and Wheler traced the remains of the ancient city near the city Torbalı, between the villages Yeniköy and Özbey, on the northeastern side of Mount Galesios (modern Alamandağ), 145 m above sea level. The valley of the Kaystros (Küçük Menderes) River opens before the foot of the hill of the city. The land of Metropolis was irrigated by the rivers Astraios (Çevlik Çay) and Phyrites (Fetrek Çay). The city’s territory bordered the territories of Colophon and Ephesus to the west and east respectively.²

2. Names

Metropolis of Ionia was never the metropolis of some colony or a metropolis with the subsequent ecclesiastical meaning. It was named after goddess Magna Mater Gallesia (city of the Mother), who, according to numismatic and epigraphic evidence, was one of the major deities worshipped in the city. A cave dedicated to the worship of the goddess was also discovered at the foot of Mount Galesios (in use from the 6th BC to the 2nd century AD).³

3. Historical Background – Archaeological Findings

3.1. Prehistoric Period

A Neolithic settlement as well as findings from the Late Bronze-Stone Age and the Bronze Age was brought to light in the area of Metropolis. The stone stamp in the Hittite style (13th or 12th century BC) found in the acropolis and the large amounts of Late Helladic pottery from the nearby Bademgediği (probably the city Puranda of the Arzawa kingdom) reveal significant activity in the area in the Hittite and the subsequent period.⁴

3.2. Antiquity

In the Geometric period (c. 750 BC) Ionian colonists settled in the area. According to ancient sources, the region between Smyrna and the Maeander (Menderes) River was occupied and settled by the sons of the mythical king of Athens Codrus. However, the city is not reported among the members of the Ionian Dodecapolis, which possibly means that, together with the wider region, it was under the reign of Ephesus. The settlement on the top of the hill still existed in the Archaic period (6th century BC).⁵

In the 7th century BC the area came under the Cimmerians and then the Lydians. After 546 BC, when Cyrus defeated Croesus, it became part of the Persian satrapy of Ionia. There are only a few findings from the Classical years, mainly coming from the acropolis.⁶

The history of the city actually starts in the 3rd century BC, in the years of the kingdom of the Seleucids, when the settlement expanded down the side of the hill and was urbanised. The city is built on terraces, modeled on Pergamon, and probably according to the Hippodamian System, while it is surrounded by mighty walls as well. It seems that in the 2nd century BC Metropolis, under the command of Εumenes of Pergamon, thrives culturally and economically, although it always remains a small city in comparison with Ephesus or Priene.⁷

The honorary inscription of ‘Apollonius’ was found in 1998 to the north of the Bouleuterion and shed light to the history of the city after 150 BC. It is known that a military force with young people from Metropolis under Apollonius –who died while fighting– helped the Romans suppress the revolt of Aristonicus (133-131 BC). It seems that Metropolis later became autonomous, as inferred by the fact that it started minting its own coinage.⁸

According to Plinius, in the 1st century BC Metropolis belonged to the conventus (judicial territory) of Ephesus. Appian reports that Mithradates occupied temporarily some cities near Ephesus (such as Tralleis) and perhaps Metropolis was among them (86 BC).⁹ In Augustus’ years the city thrived again and started being influenced by the Roman culture.

In 17 AD (in Tiberius’ years) an earthquake struck western Anatolia. Metropolis suffered heavy damages, as proven by the almost complete lack of coins, inscriptions, buildings and, generally, remains until the years of Emperor Trajan (98-117). It was then that new buildings appeared (baths, a banquet hall and an aqueduct), earlier ones were restored and new coins were minted.¹⁰

3.3. Byzantine Period

Metropolis declines in the 3rd century, when the Goths invade the wider region. Although no monumental buildings have been preserved, there are lots of coins dating back to the 4th and 5th century. The city may have recovered economically those years. However, the city-plan changes: the streets become narrower, the buildings are randomly built in open spaces and houses are smaller. Perhaps this was due to a population increase.¹¹

According to the list handed down by Hierocles, Metropolis was the seat of a bishop in the 6th century. The population was smaller and lived behind the fortified walls of the acropolis for reasons of greater security. It is not known whether the Arabs raided Metropolis. It must have been the dynamic appearance of the Turks (possibly in the years of the Lascaris dynasty, 1204-1261) that dictated the construction of a Byzantine castle in a strategic position of the city. According to Byzantine sources, there were big imperial monasteries with libraries on Mount Galesios. Only manuscripts made by the monks have been preserved.¹²

From 1304 onward the area comes under the emirate of Aydin. Metropolis becomes a rather small settlement. Ottoman sources report the existence of a castle (Kızılhisar). It may have been the old Byzantine castle still used at the time but abandoned as soon as peace prevailed in the area. The inhabitants of the settlement moved to a new position in the valley (modern Torbalı).¹³

4. Economy – Institutions – Society

There is evidence that Metropolis maintained commercial relations with Ephesus, Kos, Rhodes and other Greek islands. According to Strabo, the wine of Metropolis was particularly good. The existence of a great number of imported amphoras proves that wine trade was developed.¹⁴

In the Hellenistic years Metropolis had a theatre, a Bouleuterion and an Agora. The inscription of Apollonius reports that in the 2nd century BC the city was relatively autonomous as it had its own political institutions (Demos and Boule).

Apart from the worships of Magna Mater Gallesia, the worship of god Ares was particularly important to the history of the city. Architectural remains of the god’s temple have been discovered in the acropolis. The temple was built towards the late 1st century BC but was still in use in Roman period. On coins of the 3rd century AD the god is represented with his military equipment.¹⁵

Particular attention must have been paid to the training of children and adolescents. The city had a gymnasium, while Attalus II offered an amount to cover educational needs because the city lacked sufficient funds (inscription of Apollonius).¹⁶

5. History of Research

Apart from Spon and Wheler, Aristoteles Fontrier was also interested in the ancient city in the mid-19th century. He identified the Greek names of rivers and lakes around the city as well as the site of the theatre. Towards the end of the century Austrian researchers started to visit the remains. Systematic excavations began in 1989 and mainly 1992 under the supervision of Recep Meriç.¹⁷ Among the various findings there was a monumental theatre (c.150 BC.-2nd c. AD), similar to the theatre of Priene,¹⁸ a large room with mosaic floor from the Roman period (possibly a banquet hall),¹⁹ a Hellenistic Bouleuterion (possibly from 150 BC), where exceptional items of Hellenistic sculpture were found,²⁰ a portico with a stunning view of the valley (mid-2nd c. BC-17 AD),²¹ a Roman bath (annexed to the gymnasium)²² and a Byzantine castle (12th or 13th century).