1. General information

Nicomedia was built on the northeast side of the bay of Astacus, which became known as the bay of Nicomedia ever since. The city was situated 91 kms east of Chrysoupolis, 96 kms northeast of Prousa and 55,5 kms from the confluence of the rivers Saggarios and Gallos. Its geographical location was of great commercial, administrative and strategic importance.

Nicomedia was referred to in coins and inscriptions as “the greatest and foremost metropolis of Bithynia and the Pontos” even as early as the Late Roman period. It was the administrative and ecclesiastical metropolis of the province of Bithynia in the Early Byzantine period, as registered in Hierokles’ Synekdemos¹ in the 6^th cent. AD. However, Nicaea challenged its pre-eminence. The conflict between the two cities is reflected in historical sources and continued throughout the byzantine period, when Nicaea flourished considerably.² Nicomedia, on the other hand, is presented in the sources as a major port and transport junction.

2. Nicomedia as a transport junction

Nicomedia was easily accessible by land or water from Constantinople as well as the other cities in Asia Minor. The road connecting Chalcedon and Nicomedia, a part of which Ramsay calls pilgrims’ itinerary, was used by the emperors and the army and was critical for the defence of the byzantine capital during the Late Byzantine period, as can be established by the number of fortresses along the road.³ In the Tabula Peutingeriana, compiled around 200 AD, Nicomedia appears on the route leading from Western Europe, most particularly Bordeaux, to Jerusalem.⁴ Another road led from Nicomedia to Amaseia through River Sangarius. A bridge was constructed on this road by Justinian I (527-565 AD), some time prior to 560 AD, and the “iron fortress”, constructed by Alexios I (1081-1118 AD), was probably somewhere along the same road, west of lake Vaani (Sapanca).⁵ Nicomedia was also connected by land with Nicaea. During the 6^th cent. AD, this road led to Eribolos, registered as an emporion, allowing access to the south side of the bay of Nicomedia. Later on, this road became obsolete. In 1097, a part of this road was repaired by the crusaders of Crusade I.⁶

3. The commercial nature of Nicomedia

Seals available to modern day research illustrate the commercial activity in Nicomedia. The kommerkiarioi of Nicomedia Sergios (8^th cent. AD), Georgios (of 8^th- beginning of 9^th cent. AD) and Andronikos (end of 8^th - beginning of 9^th cent. AD) are already known by their seals. Another seal dating from the 9^th cent. AD, belonging to a man named James, royal spatharios and xenodochos (hotelier) of Nicomedia,⁷ proves the existence of a state hospice in the city during the 9^th cent. AD.⁸ Ablikalamos,⁹ the tax collector of the region around the bay of Nicomedia during the years 750-760 AD, is also known, whereas a century later, the book of the eparch (around 895 AD) depicts Nicomedia as a supply centre of the capital.¹⁰

4. Seismic activity in Nicomedia

The region of Nicomedia and Bithynia in general is characterized by a great seismic activity throughout the centuries.¹¹ At the time of Vitellius Augustus (69-70 AD), Nicomedia was destroyed by a powerful earthquake and rebuilt by means of imperial donation. On 24^th August 358 AD, at the time of Constantius II (337-361 AD), another powerful earthquake occurred, described most vividly by Ammianus Marcellinus. As a result, the city was destroyed and many of its citizens died, including Kekropios, the city’s bishop. On 2^nd December 363, another powerful earthquake completed the destruction of the city. Nicomedia was again destroyed by a powerful earthquake at the time of Theodosios II (408-450 AD), who reconstructed a number of public buildings, baths, galleries, boxes in the arenas, temples, as well as the martyrion of St. Anthimos. At the time of Zeno (479-491 AD), another destructive earthquake occurred, whereas in 554 AD, a destructive earthquake of great magnitude is recorded with post-seismic activity which lasted 40 days. Much later, around 740 AD, Nicomedia was again hit by a powerful earthquake and suffered great damage.¹²

5. History of Nicomedia

5.1 Early Christian times

The history of Nicomedia is closely associated with the story of protector Diocles, who was proclaimed Emperor by the military officials in the city on 20^th November 284 AD and was renamed Diocletian (284-305 AD).¹³ His visits to the city became more frequent,¹⁴ until 293 AD when he established Nicomedia as the second capital of the Roman Empire and stayed there for long periods of time. The city, in which a mint and an arms workshop already existed, was reconstructed. A number of public buildings and palaces, along with a naval dockyard were built and the city was fortified with new walls.¹⁵ In 294 AD, Galerius Maximianus (Galerius Valerius Maximianus) and Constantius (Flavius Valerius Constantius) were proclaimed caesars in Nicomedia. There followed a period during which the christian community of the city suffered many hardships due to the persecutions against christians by Diocletian in 303 AD, Maximinus (309-313 AD) and Licinius (313-324 AD).¹⁶

5.2 Nicomedia at the time of Constantine the Great (324-337 AD)

Constantine, later known as Constantine I (the Great), was trained in Nicomedia under the supervision of Diocletian (284-305 AD).¹⁷ Following his victory in Chrysoupolis in 324 AD, he settled in Nicomedia as the only emperor. However, his subsequent choice of Constantinople as the capital of the Roman Empire, in the same strategic location as Byzantium, the old colony of Megara, along with the favor he showed towards Nicaea, deprived Nicomedia of its protagonist role.¹⁸ It is possible that Constantine the Great wished to distance himself from the pagan past and anti-christian tradition of Nicomedia. In any case, his choices were not favorable for the city’s progress, although he maintained his ties with Nicomedia, where he chose to stay from time to time. In 323 AD, he renovated the city’s basilica and in 337 AD, just before his death, he converted to christianity and was baptized by metropolitan Eusebios in the suburban imperial villa (proasteion) Achyron at the age of 65.¹⁹

5.3. Nicomedia until the 7th cent. AD

In the 4^th cent. AD, Nicomedia continued to constitute a centre of philosophical and classical studies. The city’s history is associated with Julian (361-363 AD) and his mentor, the orator Libanius. In 344-5 AD, young Julian came to Nicomedia to study next to his godfather, bishop Eusebios. He became a deacon of the bishopric of Nicomedia and was converted to the greek philosophy and religion by Maximos of Ephesus.²⁰ Libanius was also forced to come to Nicomedia due to the enmity he faced by christian philosophers in Constantinople and Nicaea. His stay in Nicomedia, which Libanius calls “μουσείο = τόπο των μουσών”, was associated with his most pleasant memories due to the Nicomedians’ thirst for learning and philosophical inclination.²¹ The city’s prosperity, reflected in the sources, came to an abrupt halt with the earthquake of 358 AD. In 362 AD, Julian (361-363 AD) started reconstructing the city shortly after his visit there, but Nicomedia was yet again destroyed by the earthquake of 2^nd December 363 AD.²²

On 1^st March 365 AD, the byzantine army arrived in Nicomedia and Valentinianuos (364-375 AD) proclaimed his brother Valens (379-395 AD) Caesar and tribunus stabuli of Nicomedia.²³ Nicomedia became at that time the site of the military operations of Valens against the insurgent Prokopios, who occupied Nicaea.²⁴ Following his victory, Valens decided to demolish the walls of Chalkedon in order to retaliate against the supporters of Prokopios, a decision which upset the citizens of Bithynia. Citizens of Nicomedia and Nicaea went to Constantinople in order to prevent the implementation of Valens’ measures, since they considered them disastrous for the defence of their cities.²⁵

From the end of the 4^th cent. AD onwards, Nicomedia became for short periods of time the seat of emperors, such as Arcadius during the years 397-8 AD and Theodosius II in 426 AD.²⁶ Nicomedia’s prestige was reinforced at the time of Justinian I (527-565 AD). In his work On Buildings, Prokopios mentions the renovation of the public baths of Antoninus, just after the earthquake of 554 AD.²⁷ One of the most important decisions of Justinian I prior to 548 AD concerning Nicomedia was the alteration of dromos (postal service), which no longer passed through Nicomedia but bypassed the city from the west. In order to compensate Nicomedia, Justinian I repaired the road which led eastwards and built a great bridge on the river Saggarios.²⁸ With another decree in 563 AD, Justinian I ordered the relocation of the scholae palatinae of the East from Nicomedia and other cities of Bithynia to Thrace.²⁹

5.4 Nicomedia from the 7th to the 11th cent. AD

Little is known about Nicomedia during this period. From the second half of the 7^th cent. AD onwards, the city belonged administratively to the theme of Opsikion and from 798/9 AD onwards, to the theme of Optimaton. From then on, Nicomedia was no longer the capital city.³⁰ At the beginning of the 7^th cent. AD, in the Life of Theodore of Sykeon, Nicomedia is presented as a prosperous city and the villages in its outskirts as particularly fertile and highly productive. The social stratification of the city is also revealed to some degree and a mention is made to scholarioi, favrikisioi (armourers), clergymen and Jews. Citizens of Nicomedia bore high offices from time to time, such as the scholarios Theodore which was proclaimed “pater Noicomedia”.³¹

Nicomedians also faced many hardships. The Persian invaders might have passed through Nicomedia on their way to Chalkedon in 625 and in 626 AD. In 623 AD, the byzantine army under Heraclius (610-641 AD) camped at Nicomedia for the Easter celebration during their campaign against the Persians.³² No coins from Nicomedia between the years 617/8 and 625/6 AD have been discovered. This gap in minting might be associated with the Persian invasions. The city’s mint resumed its operation for a short period of time, from 626/7 up to 630 AD.³³ However, the city’s arms workshop was still in operation in 640 AD.³⁴ It seems that Nicomedia was not affected by the plague epidemic which broke out in Constantinople in 747 AD, since Constantine V (741-755 AD) sought refuge there.³⁵

Nicomedia is often mentioned in the 9^th cent. AD sources. The Vita of Theofylaktos, the metropolis of Nicomedia from 800 to 815 AD, who cared in various ways for the poor citizens of Nicomedia, illustrates the institution of social welfare during that period.³⁶ Around 845 AD, Nicomedia was described by Ibn Khordadbeh as a major city upon the road which led from the eastern regions of the empire to Constantinople, a road which was nevertheless destroyed by that time.³⁷

6. Evidence about the military importance of Nicomedia

6.1. Nicomedia as a military base from the 7th cent. AD onwards

Nicomedia was associated with a large number of military operations due to its strategic location. It was the base of the military operations of Justinian II (a. 685-695 AD, b. 705-711 AD) against the Arabs, who seized Tyana in 709 AD and invaded the Byzantine Empire. At that time, due to military necessities, the reception of pope Constantine of Rome (708-715 AD) took place in Nicomedia and not in Constantinople, as the protocol demanded.³⁸ In 716 AD, Leo III (717-741 AD), following his proclamation as emperor in Amorion, went to Nicomedia and arrested the son of Theodosios III (715-717 AD) and the imperial escort. In 718 AD, during the siege of Constantinople, the Arabs attacked Nicomedia and Nicaea but were repelled successfully by the Byzantines, entrenched in mounts Livos and Sofon. In 743 AD, Nicomedia was the operational base of Artabasdos (741-743 AD), the usurper of the throne. In 746 AD, monostrategos Niketas, son of Artabasdos, was beheaded there by Constantine V (741-755 AD).³⁹

6.2 Nicomedia as a military base during the 11th cent. AD

In 1057 AD, Nicomedia was the military base of the emperor Michael VI (1056-7 AD) against his opponent Isaac Komnenos (1055-1056 AD). Following the defeat of the imperial army, Isaac went to Nicomedia in order to attend the negotiations with the embassy of Michael VI from Constantinople. Following the defeat in Mantzikert in 1071, the advance of the Seljuks towards Constantinople was accelerated via the road which passed through Nicomedia. In 1073 AD, the later emperor Alexios I Komnenos (1081-1118 AD) was attacked by the Seljuks in the same region during his return from Ankara to Constantinople. Next year, Roussel de Bailleul, who intended to establish his own hegemony in Asia Minor and was besieging the cities along the river Sangarios, seized Nicomedia and advanced to Chrysoupolis. In 1078 AD, Nicomedia along with all the other cities of Bithynia collaborated with the insurgent and later emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates (1078-1081 AD). In 1080 AD, Nicomedia remained the only byzantine military base, following the handing over of Nicaea and other byzantine cities to the Seljuks by the insurgent Nikephoros Melissenos.⁴⁰

6.3 Nicomedia as a military base during the Komnenoi period

The Komnenoi dynasty (1081-1185 AD) focused particularly on the defensive organization of the cities of Asia Minor, building fortresses in order to avoid successive enemy invasions. In Nicomedia itself, the hill of the citadel was fortified. In 1081 AD, Alexios I Komnenos (1081-1118 AD) managed to take under complete byzantine control the bay of Nicomedia. In 1087 AD, Nicomedia was temporarily passed under Seljuk control and three years later, in 1090 AD, it was regained by the Byzantines. The region around Nicomedia was fortified and fortresses were built, such as the ones in Kibotus (Civetot) and west of lake Vaani (Sapanca). In 1116 AD, during the last campaign of Alexios I Komnenos against the Seljuks, Nicomedia and its outskirts were a military base and a redeployment centre of the byzantine army,⁴¹ whereas a few years later, in 1123 AD, the populace of the entire Nicomedia region was reinforced by the relocation of Serbian prisoners of war, to whom land was given in return.⁴² In 1158 AD, the assets of the monasteries in the Nicomedia region were protected by a chrysobull.⁴³ In 1179 Manuel I Komnenos (1143-1180 AD) passed through Nicomedia on his way to Claudioupolis, which was threatened by the Seljuks. Following the premature death of Manuel I in 1180 AD and the rise to the throne of his juvenile son Alexios II (1180-1183 AD) under the custody of his mother Mary of Antioch, several insurgent movements occurred in the interior of the empire and the exterior enemy was temporarily neglected due to the heavy taxation imposed upon the populace of the cities of Asia Minor and the successive wars. In 1182 AD, the suburbs of Nicomedia collaborated with the later emperor Andronikos I Komnenos (1183-1185) during his conflict with Mary of Antioch.⁴⁴ However, the city of Nicomedia, seat of a strong imperial garrison, remained loyal to the emperor.

6.4 Nicomedia as a military base during the Crusades

Nicomedia was a military base of the crusaders and is mentioned in the sources as an important replenishment port during the Crusades. In 1096 AD, during Crusade I, Peter the Hermit (Pierre l’ Hermite) camped in Nicomedia on his way to Kibotus (Civetot) and the remains army joined the main body of the crusaders passing by the following year.⁴⁵ Stephen of Blois refers to Nicomedia as “urbem desolatam a Turchis”.⁴⁶

In 1101 AD, there followed a new, yet unfortunate, attempt for a crusade with an assortment of troops, coming mainly from Lombardy and France. The crusaders passed through Nicomedia but were crushed later by the Seljuks between Amaseia and Sebasteia. William of Aquitaine (Guillaume d’ Aquitaine) also passed through Nicomedia.⁴⁷ In 1147 AD, during Crusade II, the armies of Conrad and Louis VII passed through Nicomedia.⁴⁸ Odo de Deuil, historian of Crusade II, describes Nicomedia as a destroyed, yet important, city.⁴⁹

7. Nicomedia at the end of the 12th – beginning of the 13th cent. AD

In 1198 AD, Nicomedia is mentioned as a “province” (eparcheia) in the chrysobull of the byzantine emperor Alexios III Angelos (1195-1203 AD) granting privileges to the Venetians. (The meaning of the term “eparcheia” of Nicomedia is rather vague and it might be the greek translation of the latin term “provincia”.) Nicomedia is also mentioned in Partitio Romaniae (1203-4 AD) as being under the jurisdiction of the theme of Oprtimaton and the “province” of Tarsia, east of the river Sangarios.⁵⁰

8. Nicomedia after 1204 AD

The region around Nicomedia became a battlefield following the overthrow of the Byzantine Empire by the crusaders of Crusade IV in 1204 AD. The Latins seized Nicomedia effortlessly because the Byzantines abandoned the city when they heard that Macaire de Sainte-Menehould and his crusaders were approaching. In March 1205 AD, the Latins withdrew from Nicomedia⁵¹ and the city came under the sphere of influence of Theodore I Lascaris (1205-1221 AD). Conflicts in the region were also triggered off by the byzantine pretenders to the imperial throne. Around 1205 AD, armed forces from the Empire of Trebizond besieged Nicomedia by land and water, pillaging the surrounding region. The siege was lifted only after the intervention of Theodore I Lascaris, who defeated David Komnenos (1222-1235 AD) of Trebizond.⁵²

In 1206 AD, the Latins seized the entire region from Thynia to Nicomedia. Nicomedia was to be handed over to Thierry de Los by Henry of Hainault (1206-1216 AD), who arrived in the city during the autumn and fortified the church of Hagia Sophia with a wall.⁵³ Theodore I Lascaris regained Nicomedia by agreement in 1207 AD. More specifically, the Latins, who intended to attack Bithynia, were taken by surprise by the Byzantines under Theodore I Lascaris in May 1207 AD. Suffering many casualties, the Latins sought refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia in Nicomedia. Henry of Hainault sent reinforcements in a fortified location close to Nicomedia, while Theodore I Lascaris headed to Nicaea and sent back ambassadors to negotiate a two-year truce, demanding the fortress of the church of Hagia Sophia in return for the release of Latin prisoners of war.⁵⁴

It is possible that Nicomedia was regained by the Latins in 1211 AD, following the byzantine defeat in the river Ryndakus (Orhaneli), although there is no related mention in the sources. In 1224 AD, according to the peace treaty signed between John III Vatatzes (1221-1254 AD) and the Latins in Peges, the regions bordering Nicomedia remained under latin control, while the city itself possibly passed under byzantine control once again. From 1241 AD onwards, Nicomedia is mentioned as a byzantine military base against the Latins. In 1246 AD, John III Vatatzes, using Nicomedia as a military base, successfully besieged Dakivyza (Gebze). One year later, he made preparations for a military operation against the Latins in Constantinople.⁵⁵

Little is known about everyday life in Nicomedia during this period. In 1214 AD, Messarites comments on the phenomenon of piracy, following a trip he made from Nicaea to Constantinople. Nicomedia was the birthplace of Maximos Planoudes, a letter of whom survives nowadays, asking the metropolitan of Nicomedia to find accommodation inside the city for an aged relative of his.

9. Nicomedia during the 14th cent. AD

At the end of the 13^th and the beginning of the 14^th cent AD, Nicomedia remained the most powerful fortress in Bithynia, guaranteeing the transportation of food and commodities to the byzantine capital via the bay of Astacus. At the same time, Nicomedia met an era of great spiritual flourishing, with John, the metropolitan of Nicomedia and later metropolitan of Heraclea, uncle of Nikephoros Gregoras, as the leading figure.⁵⁶

In 1301-2 AD, the Ottomans advanced to Nicomedia region and blocked all the land routes connecting Nicomedia with the other cities. Their numerous armies and constant reinforcements camped and systematically pillaged the fertile and densely populated region of Nicomedia. The people who sought refuge inside the city of Nicomedia were forced to choose between confronting the ottoman armies directly or enduring the pillage and the consequent famine caused by an opponent constantly growing in numbers. On 27^th July 1302 AD, a battle took place in Bapheas (Koyun Hisar), a village 5 kilometres from Nicomedia, between the Byzantines under the hetaireiarches of Mouzalon and the Ottomans under Osman. The byzantine army suffered a heavy defeat and fled. The Ottomans pillaged Bithynia up to the shores of Bosporus.⁵⁷ The emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos (1282-1328 AD), unable to confront the Ottomans directly due to a lack of strong military forces, used intermarriage as a diplomatic solution. The daughter of the christianized Mongol Kuzim Paşa married Suleiman Paşa, a leader of strong ottoman forces, and Kuzim Paşa was appointed governor of Nicomedia. However, this effort did not bring permanent results. In 1304 AD, a chieftain named Ali, son of Amur, crossed the river Sangarios and pillaged Mesothynia. As a consequence, Nicomedia suffered from famine and drought, while becoming increasingly isolated and exposed to the enemies.⁵⁸

In 1333 AD, Nicomedia was besieged by the Ottomans. The emperor Andronikos III (1328-1341 AD) arrived in Nicomedia with his fleet and started negotiations with Orhan. He agreed to pay 12.000 perpera each year for the fortresses of Mesothynia, from Nicomedia to the byzantine capital. In 1334 AD, Nicomedia was threatened once again by the Ottomans but resisted successfully thanks to its fortified location, its strong fortifications and the import of supplies by Andronikos III. However, during the siege of 1337 AD, its citizens suffered from starvation and Nicomedia eventually surrendered to the Ottomans.⁵⁹

10. Monuments – fortifications

Nicomedia is depicted in the sources as a glorious city with wide streets, colonnades, public buildings and walls. Suburbs and monasteries were situated outside the walls. Some limited excavations have taken place on the west side of the city on the occasion of the construction of a paper factory. Marble baths, residences, a colonnaded courtyard and a number of shops were excavated near the seashore, dating from the early 4^th cent. AD. These buildings were so compact that the workers were forced to use dynamite to demolish their foundations.⁶⁰ No remains of secular or religious architecture survive in Nicomedia nowadays. However, a large part of its fortifications still survives, dating from the hellenistic period to the ottoman conquest. The walls of the early byzantine city, raised by Diocletian (284-305 AD), extended from the hills to the seashore, coinciding in some places with the more ancient ones of the hellenistic period. Following the foundation of Constantinople, the walls were not maintained in all their length due to high maintenance costs. The walls of the byzantine fortress on the hill survive nowadays in a better condition, dating from the Komnenoi and later periods (12^th-14^th cent. AD).⁶¹