1. Location

The historical region of Paphlagonia, in the north/northwest of Asia Minor, was washed by the Black Sea to the north and bordered the district of Pontos to the east, Galatia to the south and Bithynia to the west. Under roman rule, Paphlagonia was part of greater administrative units, regardless of the historical and geographical context, and became autonomous after the administrative reformation of Diocletian (284-305). During the Byzantine period, from the end of the 4th century onwards, it was administratively divided into two provinces: Paphlagonia, whose metropolis was Gangra, and Honorias to the west, whose metropolis was Claudioupolis. From the third quarter of the 7th century onwards, there were always two themes in the wider area. Αround 826, part of the territory which had kept its ancient administrative name during late Antiquity came under the rule of the Theme of Paphlagonia.¹

The most important cities of Paphlagonia proved through the years to be Gangra, Claudioupolis and the coastal Heraclea Pontica (Ereğli) and Amastris. In inland Paphlagonia, the road network crossed Gangra and Claudioupolis, heading south/southeast and west. Gangra was directly linked to the north coast. Ports served navigation, the transit trade with the Crimean peninsula and communication with all coastal sites of the Empire in the Black Sea and Constantinople. The naval bases on the coast of Pontos finally came within the remit of the theme of Paphlagonia; as for the katepano οf Boukellarion and Paphlagonians mentioned on a 10th century seal, his base must have been Amastris.

2. Economy

The economy of Paphlagonia was based mainly on the agriculture. Its fertile land produced mainly grain, but also apples, dried fruits, honey, wine, olive oil and legumes. In several areas people were engaged in stock breeding. Dry pork of Pahlagonian origin was a basic foodstuff in Byzantium for centuries. Nonetheless, local society lived mainly on fishery. Gangra’s subsoil was rich in mineral salt, the famous "salt of Gangra"; Amastris’ subsoil was rich in pyxite. The mountains, which isolated the coastal zone, provided wood mainly to the shipyards of the Pontos coastline but also to the arm manufacturers. In the cities of Paphlagonia resided, amongst others, pottery and bow manufactories; as for Amastris, it was the base of the imperial fleet throughout the Byzantine period. The wider area of the Pontos coastline was more or less in the same economic status, without major differences.²

From the 8th century on, as Vita of St. Philaretos indicates, there are in Paphlagonia large estates. Until the Comnenian era, the whole region is under the control of this landed aristocracy, who has considerably raised in power in the political life of the Empire.

3. History

In the beginning of the 7th century, the Persians advanced inland to Paphlagonia, which they pillaged, but did not attempt to capture important cities. Subsequently, from the mid-7th century until the beginning of the 10th century, the Arabs systematically raided and besieged Paphlagonia, while, in the 9th century, the Paulicians attempted raids in the southeast of the region. However, the coastline was not seriously threatened in any case except, in the 10th and 11th centuries, by the people of Russ and the Normans. The Danişmendids and the Seljuks of Ikonio, who threatened the entire land of Paphlagonia for a long time, continued to advance during the second half of the 11th and throughout the 12th century. At inland sites, the dominant forces shifted regularly. In the beginning of the 13th century, Paphlagonia was a highly contested area between the Empire of Nicaea and that of Trebizond, until the intervention of the Seljuks of Ikonio. The Byzantine domination in the interior of Paphlagonia, restored since 1261, was gradually limited to the western part. During that period, namely the second half of the 13th century, the Byzantine coast came under the authority of the Italian city of Genoa; the only city under Byzantine rule was Herakleia Pontike. In the 14th century, Ottomans and Isfendiyarogullari, whose centre was Kastamon, settled in Byzantine Paphlagonia. In the 15th century the coast of Genoa came under Ottoman rule, while the Isfendiyarogullari were forced out.

4. Society

The Paphlagonian coastline was Hellenized in ancient times, as a result of the establishment of Greek colonies in the area. Gradually but steadily, the interior was Romanized under the auspices of the spreading Christianity. The inhabitants of the Paphlagonian cities enjoyed solid urban structures, good education and, to a great extent, especially compared to their neighbours, security; in addition, their public buildings and market places were well groomed.³

The Byzantine Paphlagonians were treated with aggressive satire, following a tradition traced back in the texts of late Antiquity, especially in Lucian. Homer is considered the initial source of this notoriety: the Paphlagonias were depicted as pig-assed, impostors, morons and wicked. This reputation was established not because of the satire as such but because the Paphlagonian elite prospered and often played a key role in intrigues at the Byzantine court through a number of notorious eunuchs of the period 906-1042 as well as the other high-ranking officials of Paphlagonian origin.⁴

The most eminent noble Paphlagonian lineages appeared in the 11th century: the Argyroi, the Doukai, the Kourkouai and the Komnenoi. They were families of dynatoi, landed aristocracy whose descendants climbed to the throne of Constantinople and held the highest offices. But in spite of the Paphlagonian aristocrats’ aspirations in Constantinople, the region of Paphlagonia never became a theatre of civil conflicts. Only the proclamation of the magistros Isaac Komnenos, later to be named Isaac I (1057-1059), took place in Paphlagonian territory, namely in Kastamon. Amongst the leading intellectual figures ranks poet Symeon the Theologian, monk of Paphlagonian descent and former royal spatharokoubikoularios, whose secular name was George, as well as John Mauropous, scholar and head of the Imperial Law School in the middle-11th century.