1. Identification and Etymology
Side, a key commercial harbour on the Pamphylian coast, was one of the most powerful cities of the area in antiquity. It is identified with the ruins of an ancient settlement near the modern tourist resort of Selimiye, approximately 70 km from Antalya.
The name Side, meaning pomegranate, is a word of eastern origin.1 Besides, the pomegranate was the official symbol of the city from its early years until Late Antiquity.
2. Historical Review
2.1. From the Mycenaean to the Archaic Period
The actual process of the foundation of ancient Side is lost in the past. More specifically, after the end of the Trojan War around 1200 BC, a group of Greeks advanced inland and was stationed in the area later called “Pamphylia”. According to tradition, the prime movers of these migrations were the renowned soothsayers Mopsus,2 Calchas and Amphilochus.3 The cities they founded in their new hometown played a key role in the area until Late Antiquity. It is particularly interesting that this myth about the first settlers is confirmed by inscriptions and coins which indicate that a local dialect used in Side until the 3rd c. BC. In fact, it was a Cypriot-Arcadian dialect enriched with later Doric-Aeolian elements.4 The latter are attributed to a second group of immigrants from Cyme of Aeolis, who settled in Side around 700 BC.5 The historian Arrian reports that the new settlers soon forgot the Greek language and adopted the local dialect used by the early inhabitants, which the historian describes as “barbaric”.6 This local dialect was to be forgotten much later, after the arrival of Alexander the Great in 334 BC, as it was gradually replaced by Greek, which became the official language of the city.
The information about Side provided by ancient sources is disproportionally piecemeal with respect to the importance of the city in Antiquity. This gap is to a great extent covered by inscriptions and coins, which provide adequate information mainly about the Hellenistic and Imperial periods.7
2.2. Lydian and Persian Domination
With regard to the early history of the city, only a general historical framework may be reconstructed, as indicated by the conditions prevailing throughout Pamphylia in that period. Herodotus says that the area was captured in the 6th c. BC by the Lydian king Croesus (560-546 BC).8 After he was defeated by the Persians in 546 BC, Pamphylia was incorporated into a Persian satrapy and was forced to pay taxes to the new authorities. But it seems that Side enjoyed some autonomy, since it minted its own coins already since the 5th c. BC. After the Persian Wars, the expansionist policy of the first Athenian League had a direct effect on Side, given that the Athenians intended to establish control over the Pamphylian coast as well. Finally, as a result of the overwhelming victory of the Athenian general Cimon at the mouth of the river Eurymedon near Side (466 or 461 BC), the Persians lost control of the Pamphylian plain. Things changed again in 386 BC, when the Antalcidas’ Peace was signed and all Greek cities of Asia Minor came once again under the sceptre of the Persian king. The exact conditions prevailing in the Pamphylian cities during this second phase of Persian domination are unknown. Side and neighbouring Aspendus continued to mint coins, which presupposes a certain degree of autonomy for both cities. Shortly later, in 365 BC, Side took part in the Revolt of the Satraps against the Persians along with the rest of the Pamphylian cities.
2.3. Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Period
A new era started for the city when Alexander arrived in the area. After the Battle of the Granicus (334/333 BC), Side, Perge and Aspendus hurried to subordinate to the Macedonians. The king placed a garrison in Side and founded a mint,9 thus maintaining the key role of the city in Pamphylia. Alexander’s death in 323 BC signalled an era of reshuffling. In the following years, Pamphylia came successively under different forces that dominated its territory. As a result, from the Conference of Triparadisus (321 BC) until the Battle of Ipsus (301 BC), the area was under Seleucid control. In the 3rd c. BC (295-218 BC) the city changed sides and came under the control of the Ptolemies, who were dominating the Mediterranean in that period. The Ptolemies were not strict rulers and signed agreements with the most powerful cities under their jurisdiction. From 218 until 189 BC the Seleucids were restored in the area. The beginning of that period was marked by Achaeus, who tried to usurp the power of Antiochus III the Great. These events are connected with a military incident Side was actively involved into, which confirms that the relations among the Pamphylian cities were not always harmonious. When Selge attacked Pednelissus, a city near the powerful city of Aspendus, Achaeus sent there the military commander Garsyeris to help the besieged.10 While Aspendus and Etenna hurried to help the besieged city, Side refused any such involvement. This attitude was dictated by its devotion to the central authority and mainly by its hostility towards Aspendus.
In the early 2nd c. BC (190-189 BC), the war between the Romans and Antiochus IV reversed again the existing balance and signalled the outset of a new era. The naval battle of Side in 190 BC was decisive for the outcome of the war, since the Seleucid fleet was heavily defeated. The ensuing Peace of Apamea (188 BC) defined the spheres of influence of the new rulers. Thus, the western part of Pamphylia as far as the river Cestrus was annexed to the kingdom of Pergamon, while the eastern part –including Side– remained free.
These years, until the late 2nd c. BC, signal the first long period of prosperity for the city. This was mainly due to its thriving commerce, which made Side one of the most important commercial centres in the area. The widespread circulation of its coins in Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia and Egypt certifies the existence of an extensive commercial network in the Aegean and the wider Mediterranean.
It is interesting that the citizens of Pamphylia did not hesitate to express their friendly stance towards Rome because they discerned the new rising power in the area. For example, in 168 BC a Pamphylian delegation arrived in Rome asking to renew the amity between the two sides. Shortly later Side was actively involved in the third Carthaginian war (149-146 BC) on the side of Rome and offered five ships to the Roman general Scipio Aemelianus to lay siege on Carthage.
2.4. The Roman Intervention
This period ended in 133 BC, when Attalus III died and the kingdom of Pergamon was bequeathed to Rome. Pamphylia remained autonomous for a short period, but was soon called to confront piracy, which was going to destabilise the area in the following years. The cities were unable to protect themselves. Side was compelled to grant the pirates the right to build ships in its dockyards. The city soon became one of the major centres of piracy. Things became worse during the Mithradatic wars some years later, when Mithradates VI Eupator captured the entire Pamphylia following an agreement with the pirates.11 In 78 BC, P. Servilius Vatia, proconsul of Cilicia, assumed control over Pamphylia and was assigned the difficult task of purging the region from piracy. Finally, he managed to expel the pirates only from the western part of the region before his task was completed by Pompey shortly later. The inhabitants of Side, showing their gratitude for the Roman general, erected an honorary monument dedicated to him.
When Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, Pamphylia was incorporated for a short period into the province of Asia, while in 36 BC Mark Antony ceded it to the kingdom of Galatia. After the death of the king of Galatia Amyntas in 25 BC, Pamphylia was united with Lycaonia, thus forming a separate province. In 43 AD, Claudius created the province of Lycia-Pamphylia. In Hadrian’s years (136 AD), Pamphylia became a consular province for the first time for reasons serving the Roman administration; this situation remained unchanged from 178/179 AD onwards, in the years of Marcus Aurelius. The first half of the 3rd c. AD was a period of great economic development. The peaceful circumstances prevailing in the area helped Side to become a major commercial centre and increased its population.12 Decline started in the second half of the 3rd c. AD, when the Scythians raided from the Black Sea in the years of Claudius Gothicus (268-270 AD), only to be successfully repelled by the citizens. In the next century the city was faced with the Isaurians. The successive restorations of the city walls clearly reflect that turbulent period. These events resulted in the restriction of the city’s territory. Some signs of recovery appeared in the 5th century, while two centuries later the Arab invasions gave the final blow to ancient Side.
3. Economic Life
The harbour of Side, a meeting point for key marine routes, helped the city to become the centre of marine communications between Syria, Egypt and Cyprus in the East and Rhodes and the Aegean in the West. Side was the main rival of the neighbouring and wealthy city of Antalya in the field of commerce. Therefore, the harbour is worthy of remark as it was of vital importance to the citizens. It should be noted that sea currents and gusty winds usually blowing there had made it legendary among ancient seafarers as they had difficulty in docking their ships. As a matter of fact, the phrase “I ran up against the harbour of Side” was used each time anybody referred to a heavy task.13
The economic prosperity of the city was due to sea commerce and the fertile, well-irrigated land around the river Melas.14 In addition, Side was a terrestrial centre trading goods to Lycaonia, since it was in close proximity to the route leading there through difficult mountain passages.
The economic development of Side reached its apex in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Elaborate irrigation networks favoured intensive agriculture, while at the same time the people were engaged in the production of olive oil, viniculture, fishing, ship-building and commerce. In Diocletian’s years (284-305 AD) breadstuffs were transhipped there on their way from Alexandria to the North and Ephesus was therefore displaced. This commercial privilege boosted anew the economic life of the city.
4. Political System
The main political bodies of Side were the boule, the ecclesia tou Demou (Assembly of Citizens) and the Senate. The city was divided into 4 quarters, named after the important buildings adorning them. These were the Tetrapoleiton quarter (including a tetrapolos, namely a four-horse chariot or tethrippon on the apse of a street with colonnades), the Vomeiton quarter (named after Zeus’ altar or vomos), the Megalopyleites quarter (named after the Megale Pyle – Great Gate) and the Megalo Synergeio. It is interesting that this arranement divided the city not only into different zones, but also into four separate administrative parts, since each quarter had its own Senate.
5. Religious and Social Life
The inscriptions found in Side provide almost complete information about the religious life of the city, mainly during the Imperial period. Glorious athletic and musical contests were held in those years, similar to the Olympic and Pythian Games of mainland Greece.
The cults of Apollo and Athena, the patron gods of the city, were widespread. Rituals in honour of the two gods included the Pythia, which was the base of amity between the Delphi and Side. The importance of these games is confirmed by their depiction on 3rd c. AD coins.15
As a thriving commercial harbour, Side gradually became a cosmopolitan centre of the area. In Late Antiquity the city was inhabited by people of all tribes and religions. Apart from Greeks, there were lots of people from the East, mainly traders from Phoenicia, Syria, Cyprus and Alexandria of Egypt. The Egyptians introduced the cult of Sarapis and Isis into Side, as the two gods were quite popular among the Greek citizens. It is certain that the city had a flourishing Jewish community with two synagogues.16 Finally, it should be noted that traders and soldiers arrived from time to time from the West, from mainland Greece and from cities of Asia Minor.
6. Urbanization of the Ancient Settlement
The Roman historian Livy talks about a city of Pamphylia built on a steep rocky cape that “penetrated the sea”.17 The description matches the archaeological evidence of ancient Side, whose ruins are spread over a peninsula about 800 m long and 400 m wide.
The harbour of Side, the main factor of the city’s prosperity in Antiquity, was almost completely artificial. Only a small part is visible today, but the ancient breakwater has survived. Because a small area of the city has been excavated, it is difficult to decide whether the Hippodameian system was adopted, as in Priene and in Miletus, or the city plan followed the land surface relief, as happened in Pergamon.
There are scarce and rather insufficient natural resources around the city. The way the city was supplied with fresh water in earlier times remains unknown, since the archaeological evidence does not indicate the existence of an organised water supply system. On the other hand, in the Imperial years the city was irrigated by the river Melas. The water arrived in the city through an impressive aqueduct, whose pipes started from the spring of Dumanlı and followed a 29 km path to the city walls. At certain points the pipes were carved on natural rock, while at other points they ran above the ground, resting on high apses, some of which are still visible today. The water was collected in reservoirs and supplied a magnificent and richly decorated nymphaeum immediately outside the north gate. Both the nymphaeum and the aqueduct are dated to the 2nd c. AD.18 In the Late Imperial years the economic decline of the city had obviously a negative effect on the usage of the irrigation system, which was neglected and no longer repaired. For this reason, the intervention of an eminent citizen, Bryonianus Lollianus, in the late 3rd c. AD, who financed the repairs of the pipes, was of vital importance to the citizens.
Side was protected by a fortification wall dated to the Late Hellenistic period (2nd c. BC). Most of its preserved parts were constructed later, with sand covering today its southern part and the nearby area. The external part of the wall, built according to the isodomic system, has a decorative cyma alongside and is fortified by defensive towers at irregular intervals. The internal side of the fortification is arranged on three levels, which was really helpful for the movement of the defending citizens. The main gate of Side was in the northern part of the wall and its ground plan was very similar to that of the gates in Sillyon and Perge.19 In the Imperial period it was decorated with niches, sculptures and columns, thus acquiring a monumental character. The second gate of Side was at the opposite end of the city, to the south. Excavations carried out there brought to light a structure of a different ground plan as well as reliefs depicting parts of weapons, probably loot from a major battle given in the 2nd c. BC between Side and Pergamon.20
A magnificent street crossed the ancient city starting from the harbour and ending at the quarter of the temples. A minor street started from the main gate and ran to the west. These two axes connected the four quarters of ancient Side. They were paved with slabs and were lined with splendid stoas (porticos) with shops on both sides. Only a small part of them is visible today because the very dense habitation of the area.
The commercial Agora of Side laid along the street starting from the north gate. Only its foundations are visible today, while the centre was dominated by a 2nd c. AD circular temple possibly dedicated to the goddess Tyche. In the 4th c. AD the citizens built a small wall to the south of the Agora. It comprised an arched gate, which became the entrance to the city at that point. Beside the gate is Vespasian’s monument, though not at its original position. The preserved inscription dates it to 74 AD. It was a well-made building made by the citizens at an unknown point in Side in order to honour emperors Titus and Vespasian. The Agora is in close proximity to a 5th c. AD complex of baths, today housing the Archaeological Museum of the city. Τhe theatre of Side, in the same area, is an impressive construction from the Imperial years. Between the theatre and the street with the colonnades are the ruins of a small 1st c. BC temple probably dedicated to the god Dionysus. To the southeast of the theatre, outside the later wall, was the Public Agora of the city, which was wrongly identified with a Gymnasium. It was decorated with sculptures, probably including also a library adorned with statues of athletes and deities, Roman copies of Greek originals.21
The southern part of the city is dominated by the quarter of the temples above the harbour and the sea. There are two identical peripteral Corinthian temples built on an elevated groundwork; they are dated to Imperial times (2nd c. AD). Only their foundations are visible today, while their architectural members are scattered around the area. The temples were dedicated to Apollo and Athena, the two most important gods worshipped in the city.22 In the Early Byzantine period, in the 5th or 6th century, the citizens built a magnificent basilica to the east of the temples.23 A small temple, probably dedicated to the god Men, lies to the east of the basilica, while the Harbour Baths have been preserved to the northeast of this temple and close to the main street of the city.
Among the ruins of ancient Side a special position is held by the extensive necropolis to the east of the city. The numerous burial monuments have survived in good condition, although intensive agriculture in the area has caused damage to many of them. Most of these monuments are dated to the Imperial period, while the cemetery was still used in Byzantine years. There were several types of burial monuments, such as sarcophagi, tombs built above the ground, altars and ossuaries. The relief decoration of the sarcophagi is particularly impressive and confirms that Side was an outstanding centre of sculpture in the Imperial period.24